Themes of Modern European
History
Mr. Moravek
Geography: the understanding of how the geographic
features of
- Geography will expand beyond physical
features such as mountains and rivers.
- Geography will also include Urbanization
trends & demographic shifts
-
Demographic shifts will focus on various social, economic and political
characteristics of European population over the course of the last 500 years
-
For example, we will examine the demographic shifts that occur as a
result of the IR
Intellectual History: the history of ideas. We will exam how European thought has changed
/ evolved over time.
-
Intellectual history provides a broad picture or explanation for the
unfolding of key events in European history.
Ex. How did the Enlightenment change people's
understanding of self and the
relationship between government and citizens?
Political History: the identification of key political leaders
and ideologies.
-
We will identify key political leaders and their particular ideology in
an effort to understand the changes taking place in European society.
Ex. Catherine the Great of Russia and her
attempts at westernization
Religion: Throughout the first half of the course
religious conflict will heavily influence much of the political, social and
economic development.
-
The Reformation and the resulting aftermath will be the greatest
upheaval that
Ex. How did the Reformation impact the Bourgeois
development?
Social History: We will examine the daily lives of people in
- We will examine the changing structure of
family and the role of women, men, students,
ect. in European society.
Ex. How did the IR change the lives of women in
European society?
Technology: the advancement of technology is in many ways
responsible for change in all areas of European history. Consider the impact of Guttenberg's
introduction of the printing press to European society.
- Technology changes the relationship between
all of the themes of history.
Ex. The introduction of rifles permitted
Economics: in understanding how people provided for
their needs we can see the values and changes in society.
Ex.
The development of mercantilism supported the growth of larger
governments and new industries in
What is Western Civilization?
-
In other words, what makes the West the West?
Ancient History:
Hunter farmer culture … importance of the wheel and cyclical universal
-
Success passed back and forth for a time, but by the 13th
Century the East had proven superior
-
In the East success …
-
West … barbarian
How did the West triumph and the East decline?
-
Science, technology & knowledge (Parallel to modern
-
How did this happen?
Answer: How one looks
at the world they live in
-
Compare Judaism and Confucianism
o Linear
v. Cyclical universe
o West
saw new possibility and accepted new patterns of thought and sought to change
their existence for the better
o East
sought harmony with the natural world and accepted their world as it was
o The
West will pursue the idea of Progress throughout their course of history
(Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Rev., Enlightenment, FR, Nazis,
ect.). Remember Progress can be equally
good or bad.
A flow chart of Western History supports the idea of
continual progress:
¯ ¯
Exploration
The Middle Ages presents a problem in this over simplistic
model, but we can argue that the Middle Ages were little more than a
transitional period filling the political void left by the collapse of the
Remember,
the Renaissance is often interpreted as the rediscovery of the Classical
Elements of the story:
- Rediscovery of
Aristotelian thought, contact with non-western societies
- Incorporation of
Greek rationalism by European Society
- Role and structure
of the Christian church in the development of
AP Exam summary:
Multiple Choice
- Eliminate obvious
foils, then pick and pray.
Free Response Essay:
- Two Free Response
Essays
- Typically they hit
on key themes such as the Enlightenment and allow students to demonstrate both
specific content knowledge and a broad understanding to the trends in European
History
Ex. Assess the extent to which the unification of
Ex. Analyze and assess the extent to which the
First World War accelerated European Social change in such areas as work, sex
roles and government involvement in everyday life.
Tips: Outline your response, have a clear and
concise thesis, use specific examples to support your key ideas, expand your
response to connect to broad changes occurring in European society (more to
come)
Data Based Question:
- One BDQ
- Students will be
provided with a question and a series of documents which should be used to
answer the question.
- Students are
expected to develop a thesis and prove their argument.
- It is critical that
students are able to identify the bias / perspective of the source
Ex. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution?
Ex. Analyze the arguments for and against the
restriction of the sale of gin in the 18th century
Tips: Read and analyze each document provided,
ascribe bias and perspective of each document / source, develop an elevated
thesis, outline, review outline, write intro and proof intro, use sources as
support / proof as frequently as possible, finish essay (more to come)
Grades:
1-5, 4 and 5 could earn you college credit depending upon
the institution.
Highlights of Classic Culture
Part 1: The beginning of Civilization
Civilization is a form of complex
culture that develops as a result of key traits:
Cities, advanced technology
(math), writing, complex institutions, specialized workers
Highlights:
1. Akkadian
Empire: King Sargon created the first
multiethnic empire in history
2. Hammurabi’s
Code: first written legal code, largely
based on the principles of retribution and class
3. Gift of the
4. Monotheism: Hebrews are credited with invention of a new
perspective of human and spiritual existence.
5.
Part 2: Ancient
Foundations
1. Cyclabic: first to inhabit the islands around
2. Minoan: located on
3. Mycenaen: inhabited mainland
Archaic
- Foundations of
Greek civilization were laid: commerce
increased, cities grew larger, literature reemerged, new political structures
were invented.
-
During this time the Greeks invented the idea of abstract thought and
the concept of the individual
Greek city-states (Polis) were
dominated by small oligarchies
- Constant state of warfare → need for
more soldiers → democratization of
the army → democratization of political life
- Population pressure led to colonization and
increased conflict
- Over time the demands of population led the
rise of tyrants
- favored commercial interests
- Mythology connected supernatural to nature
through the use of reason
ex. Persephone and the seasons
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- Coastal trading
city - Initially led by
tyrants - Massively wealthy - Moderate size oligarchy
formed the basis of an stable economic and political system |
- Population
pressure led to class conflict - Draco, Solon,
Cleisthenes - All classes came
together to form a strong sense of nationalism and beginning of democracy - Pericles glorification
of |
- Militaristic
state - Code of Lycurgus - Strict life for
men, more freedom for women - Ruled by a small
authoritarian oligarchy |
||
Persian Wars:
Greeks defeat the Persian invasion (
Peloponnesian Wars:
Result: Tremendous
uncertainty of life in the Greek City-States
Socrates:
The Examined Life:
know thy self, taught by questioning students, look inward for answer
- Questioned all of Athenian society
- Convicted to death
Plato
®
Student
of Socrates, 28 years old when Socrates sentenced to death
®
Questioned
Democracy:
o Lead him to believe that average citizen is
unable to govern
o 385 BC Plato wrote the Republic
§
Govt.
should be run by special people of talent
®
Open
school: Academy
o Trained the next generation of philosophers
Aristotle
®
Plato’s
student
®
Believed
that knowledge came for observation of physical environment
®
Developed
LOGIC
o A to B to C
§
Can’t go
A to C
§
Precursor
to scientific method
§
Systems
of logic could explain all of the human experience
§
Aristotelian
logic created "closed systems" as explanations to the human
experience
§
Basis of
Western scientific knowledge through the Enlightenment
®
Tutored
Alexander the Great
Greek Drama:
Satyr: Make a point by making fun of it
Tragedies: contrasted the conflict between duties and
loyalties
Greek Drama continually questioned
the values of society and examined the behavior of humans
Classical World : Part 3
Ancient
-
battle
and defeat the Latins, Samnites, Greeks
-
Unite
all of
- Establish a confederate
system of Government to rule conquered peoples on the
Mythology of early
-
-
Rape of Lucretia, end of the monarchy
- Death to any king
Why was
- Good diplomats: able to negotiate conquests
- Crushed rebellions without mercy
- Extend citizenship and allowed states to
run their own affairs
- Accomplished and persistent soldiers
- Build infrastructure: roads, fortifications
- Allowed defense of conquered lands
- Effective government system
Roman Republic
Consuls:
Two, elected annually, led govt. and army
Senate: three hundred landowning men, life term
-
At first
role was to advise govt. officials, eventually their consent becomes required
Popular
Assemblies: Groups of citizens who came
together to express ideas and opinions
-
ie. Centuriate
Assembly, Council of the Plebs
-
Represent
the ideals of different classes of peoples
Patricians: Great landowners who became the ruling class,
participate in Senate
Plebeians: Artisans, lesser landowners, merchants
(middle / lower class)
-
Tribunes
of Plebs: council of plebs, supposed to
speak for and protect the plebian class
- Struggle between Plebeians and
Patricians led to formation of a new ruling class (combination of both classes)
- Punic Wars led to a
change in the social / economic conditions of Roman society
1. Soldiers
return home to ruins, no money to rebuild, they were forced to sell land to the
rich.
2. Gap between
the rich and poor grew.
-Poor
moved to
3. New Class-
Urban landless, poor - PROLETARIAT
-could
at times become a dangerous mob in
4. Patricians
got richer
- furnished their homes with the spoils of
war
5. Rich bought
slaves to work new lands
Result: Massive
Class conflict
Caesar’s rise
to power
-Opponent of Sulla, escaped death by bribing Sulla’s soldiers
-Great politician
-Knew wealth meant power, and wealth was in
Provincial governorship
-Played
political game for twenty years
-Parties,
speeches
-Borrowed
$ to pay for it (Crassus the Rich)
-Caesar
gained appointment to governor of a Spanish province, he became rich.
First
Triumvirate
-60 BC Caesar - Crassus - Pompey (marries Julia -Caesar’s
daughter)
-Caesar
elected Consul in 59 BC
-Consul one year - then appointed himself governor of
-captured
-pushed
his troops hard, shares their hardships
-won
their loyalties
-Crassus was killed while serving as a provincial governor
-Pompey became Caesar’s Rival
-Senate became scared of Ceasar’s success, ordered him
home.
-Caesar came home, he crossed the
-This was
a direct challenge to Pompey and the Senate.
-Pompey fled, Caesar took
-44 BC Caesar appointed himself dictator for ten years.
Accomplishments
of Caesar
-46 BC Senate appointed him dictator for 10 years.
-changes-
1. Granted citizenship to more people
2. Expanded the Senate
3. Free men used for slaves
4. Public works program to create jobs
5. Colonies for the poor
6. Julian Calendar
-These reforms reduced the urban poor by half.
-
-according
to law, kill anyone who thinks they are King.
-After Caesar’s death the Second Triumvirate forms
to destroy Caesars enemies.
Philosophy:
· Epicureanism - belief that one should avoid
pain by avoiding all forms of excess, even those of pleasure (Greek)
-Romans use
this to justify seeking pleasure
·
Stoicism - philosophy created by Zeno, stated
that there is a supreme power in the universe that controls everything
-pain
/ pleasure are unimportant
-duty,
reason and courage are important
-men
should act justly towards others
The Fall of the Roman Empire
235
to 284 AD
· Military leaders continually fought for
throne (23 emperors in 50 years) led to internal weakness.
· Suffer attack by several foreign forces
1.
Attacked
by Sassanid Persians from the east
2.
Germanic
tribes attack in the Balkans, Asia Minor, Gaul and Spain
· Agricultural production decreases due to
invasion
· Massive inflation as a result of debasement
of Roman currency
Constantine:
· Moves capital to the city of Byzantine
(renames it Constantinople)
-
Better
defensive location
-
Adopts
Christianity as the official state religion
-
Divides
empire into eastern / western
Results: Restored stability to the Empire, failed to
address underlying issues
Fall of Rome:
1.
Economic
Decay:
·
trade is
disrupted by barbarian raids and pirates
·
Romans
spend to much on luxuries
·
agricultural
production decrease
·
inflation
(price of goods rises)
2.
Military
Decay:
·
soldiers
stop fighting for the glory of Rome and fight only for $
·
challenged
along the East boundaries of the empire
3.
Political
Decay:
·
citizens
are no longer willing to give their lives for the Empire, they become
indifferent towards the Government
·
people
less willing to serve the Government
armies begin to struggle for power within the Empire
4. Social Decay:
· Christian
values change the way Romans treat one another and conquered peoples
The Fall:
· Huns attack Europe in late 4th
Century
-
Pushed
Germanic tribes west and south (Visigoths, Vandals)
-
410
Visigoths sack Rome
-
Vandals
move into Spain and North Africa, Sack Rome in 455
-
476
Romulus Augustulus is deposed (last Roman Emperor)
Transformation of the Roman
World
With the fall of
Byzantine
· Eastern Half of the Roman Empire
-
Capital
was Constantinople / Istanbul
-
Center
of trade between east and Europe
o
Byzantine
Silk industry
-
Split
was both religious and political
o
Patriarch
(head of Byzantine Church) appointed by Emperor
o
Eastern
Orthodox Church
o
Who
controlled the Church?
- Byzantine was a mixture of
Roman, Greek and Christianity.
· Reign of Justinian
-
Conquered
almost the entire Mediterranean world
-
Codification
of Roman Law
o
The
Body of Civil Law
o
Eventually
became the basis of European law
-
Rebuilt
o
Hagia
Sophie
o
Hippodrome
-
Byzantine became major power
· Significance of Byzantine
1. Served as a buffer between Islamic expansion
and
2. Preserved Roman culture
· Fall of Byzantine
-
Challenged
on all sides (Catholic Church, Germanic tribes, Slavic peoples, Muslims)
-
Rivalry
between Patriarch and Pope
o
Crusades
Charlemagne:
Roman rule was
replaced by that of various Germanic Kings.
Ostrogoths
controlled
Visigoths controlled
Franks controlled
-
Led by
o
Converted
to Christianity in 500 AD
o
Followed
the Christian church of
o
Christians
of Rome support
Role of the
Christian Church changed:
-
As the
-
Developed
a system of Government
o
Priest –
local parishes
o
Bishop –
diocese
o
Archbishop
– oversaw several dioceses
o
Pope –
bishop of
§
Gregory
I: extended power of papacy (politically in
-
Monastic
movement
o
Saint
Benedict wrote Benedictine rule (strict)
§
Set an
ideal of Christian behavior
§
Provided
schools, inns, hospitals, missionaries, centers of learning and knowledge
Charlemagne
(Carolingian Line)
-
Pepin
(Charlemagne’s father) claimed kingship of Frankish lands
o
Had son
Charles (Charlemagne)
o
Ideal
king; athletic, smart, religious (illiterate but emphasizes learning)
-
Conquers
most of western Europe
o
Used
Counts to rule local areas
§
Missi
Dominici spy on Counts
-
800 AD
Accepted title Holy Roman Emperor (HRE)
o
Defender
of the Faith
o
Was this
good for Charlemagne or the Pope? (Leo
III)
§
Cemented
the political and religious rift between Byzantine and the West
Impact of
Charlemagne
- United
- Created new role of HRE
- Revived Learning (Christian and
Classical)
Dominance of Christianity:
- Began under the
rule of
Characteristics of Christianity:
Highly organized Church hierarchy:
Church was really a
Pope (Head)
Curia (advisory
council)
College of
Cardinals (selected Pope, added as a reform of Gregory IV)
Legates
(Diplomats)
Bishops (rule
local lands)
Priests (Rule
Local Communities)
Canon
Law: Court system
Tithe:
Income Tax (10%)
Philosophy:
Augustine: Salvation
was the providence of all of god’s elect
Three Pillars of the Medieval World:
Emergence
of Feudalism
Why?
1. Collapse of central authority under the
attacks from Vikings, Magyars and Muslims.
-
Royal govt. could no longer protect the people
2. People turn to local landed aristocrats (War
Lords)
- New invention (stirrup)
- Most powerful military weapon became the mounted
Feudalism: Social / political system in which people
swear loyalty to aristocrat in return for protection
- Vassalage:
practice of granting land to nobles in exchange for swearing loyalty
- King (lord) grants land (fief)
to his Vassal in exchange for loyalty.
Vassal had almost
absolute political authority in his fief.
King
Great Vassal Great
Vassal Great Vassal
Vassal Vassal
Vassal Vassal Vassal Vassal
Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight Knight
Feudal Contracts
(unwritten rules):
· Lords and Vassals were required to perform
military service on behalf of one another.
· Vassals required to pay a portion of their
profits to their Lords.
· Serve and advise the king
· Administer justice
· Lord owed loyalty to his vassal
Subinfeudation: practice of continual vassalage in which one
knight may owe loyalty to several lords
Nobility in
Feudalism:
1. Men of War
2. Defenders of Society
-Chivalry (code of ethics) develops under pressure from the Church
Basic Social /
Economic unit of Feudalism is the MANORIAL SYSTEM
- Agricultural
Estates managed and run by a lord and worked by peasants / serfs
Peasant: subsistent farmers (grow enough to survive)
Serfs: farmers tied to the land, primarily
subsistent farmers
Lords: Aristocracy responsible for the regulation of
manor
- Manors were 100%
self sufficient (further decline in trade and cities)
- Farmers gave up
independence for protection of the Lord (Vikings), became surfs
- Early form of “share cropping”
- Work lords land three days a
week, and pay taxes on what they grew
- Paid for use of common land /
resources (mills, ponds, pastures, ect.)
- Tithe: 10% of income goes to the local church
- Role of the
Nobility:
1.
Enforce the law within their manor
2.
Protect serfs
Growth of Kingdoms
Kings sought to
extend power beyond limitations of the Feudal System
How?
1. Marriage
2. Warfare
England
1066 William of
-
Defeated King Harold
- Battle of
- William replaced English
aristocracy with a Norman aristocracy
- Intermarriage eventually merged
Normans and Anglo-Saxons
Result:
1. Strong centralized system of govt. under the
Kings control
2. King of
Henry II: Created a national legal system and a set of
Common Law
-
Tried to extend power over church, failed
-
Thomas a Becket, archbishop of
King Richard
-
Leaded the English knights on Crusades and battled against the French
king to ensure his lands on the continent
1215 King John (Soft Sword – loses family lands in
Impact:
-
Limited the power of the King
-
No taxation without representation
-
Trial by Jury
*Note: Magna Carta only applied to kings direct
vassals
Why was this document
so important in Anglo-American history?
Edward I: Establishes first parliament to collect
taxes, begins tradition of regular representation
- Parliament (Bicameral - two house legislature)
- House of Lords = kings vassals
- House of Commons = Knights,
lower nobility and wealthy merchants
987 AD last
Carolingian Kings dies
- Nobles select Huge Capet to become new king
(Capetian Dynasty)
-
Why?
- He was very weak
-
At first very little power
-
Control
Philip II (Philip
Augustus): Attacks English control of
- Increases wealth and power of
French Monarchy
- Begins to expand central
Bureaucracy
Philip IV (the
Fair): Created and expanded an effective
Royal Bureaucracy
- Established the Estates General (three house
legislature)
a.
1st Estate = High
Clergy
b.
2nd Estate = Kings Vassals
c.
3rd Estate = Lower
nobility / Wealthy merchants
Otto I (Saxon)
becomes King of HRE
- Empire included all of the German Feudal
kingdoms and
- Strength of the German monarchy
was tied to the direct control of the church in
- Fredrick I: attempts to take control of the Northern
Italian cities
- Defeated by coalition of cities
and the Pope
-
Fredrick II: tries the same thing
as Fredrick I, same result
Impact:
- The struggle for control of
- Both
Slavic peoples:
- Divide into three subdivisions in
1. Western Slavic people: formed
- Converted to Catholicism and
became tied to the HRE (along with
2. Southern Slavic people: fall under the influence of Byzantine and
Eastern Orthodox
- Eventually there is a
split: Croatians become Catholic,
Serbians stay with Byzantine
- Bulgarians also come under
influence of Byzantine
3. Eastern Slavic peoples: Settled in
- Convert to Eastern Orthodox Christianity
- Mongol invasion (13th century) cut
- Alexander Nevsky helps defend
-
receives title of Prince from Mongols
- Establishes the next ruling line for the Russian
Muhammad and the Origins of Islam
Arab Culture:
-
-
Bedouin (nomadic tribes)
-
Annual pilgrimage to sacred shrine in
-
Polytheistic (Kaaba contained 360 idols)
Muhammad (background):
-
Orphan, illiterate
-
Marries woman who is 15 years older ($$$)
-
Age 40:
o Gabriel
appears to him
o Leads
him to believe in one god (Allah)
o Heavily
influenced by Christians and Jewish
Start of Islam:
-
Muhammad’s ideas are initially rejected by Merchants
($)
-
Muhammad is forced to flee to
o
“Hegira”
-
In Medina Muhammad attracts many new followers, wins
political influence
-
Muhammad takes over
o Destroyed
idols in the Kaaba, saves the “Black Stone”
Teachings of Muhammad:
-
Five Pillars of Faith (instructions to be a good
Muslim):
1. Faith:
Declare faith in one God
2. Prayer:
required to pray five times a day
3. Alms:
$ to help the needy
4. Fasting:
One month a year Ramadan
5. Pilgrimage:
Once a lifetime every Muslim is expected to journey to
Other teachings of Islam:
Shari’ah:
Islamic legal code
- Applied only to
Muslims, non-believers were subject to a separate legal code
No gambling, alcohol, dishonesty.
- Strict regulation
of sexual relations
- Arranged marriages, limited rights for women
Spread of Islam
Islam Expands:
-
by 732
AD (100 years) Islam controls:
o
o
o
o
o
- Expansion stopped in 717 at
Why such rapid expansion?
1.
Passion:
Jihad – holy war all warriors who die go to heaven
2.
Over
population – Armies fill up
3.
Little
resistance
4.
Tolerant
rulers
Conquered peoples had three choices:
- Convert
- Pay tax
- Die
5.
Missionary
religion
6.
Advanced
technology (Steel)
-
Two classes
of Muslim develop:
o
Arab
Muslims
o
Non-Arab
Muslims
Caliphs rule the
Muslim Empire as a theocracy
1.
Orthodox
Caliphate: personal relatives of Muhammad
a.
Abu-Bakr:
Develops the Qur’an and unites the Arab people
b.
Omar:
Greatest conqueror
2.
Umayyad
Caliphate: New family which replaces the line of Muhammad
a.
Established
by Mu’awiyah (tolerant and moderate)
Division of Islam:
Shi’ites: believe that only the decedents of Ali
(Muhammad’s son-in-law) are true Caliphate
-
Favored uprising led by Hussein (killed in revolt)
-
Continue to exist in
Sunni: believed that only decedents of Umayyads is
true Caliphate
-
Abbasid dynasty replaces the Umayyad Caliphate
- Moved capital to
- Open and tolerant society
- Eventual political corruption led to division
of the empire
Fatimids (
- Hire Seljuk Turks to fight for
them
1055 Turks take over
- Sultan:
Political and military leader (“holder of power”)
-
Begin to challenge
-
Alexius I (Byzantine Emperor) needs help
- Claims mistreatment of Christians, begins
Crusades
- NOT TRUE, Christians are treated well by
Muslims
- Crusades begin in 1096
-
Christians win at first
- Capture
- Saladin:
leads Muslim counter attack
- They win and end up controlling
Cultural
Contributions:
1. Preservation of Classical knowledge
a.
Creation of paper books and massive libraries
2. Mathematical advancement
a.
Use of Zero
b. Algebra, logical thought
patterns
3. Architectural advancements
a.
Arches, Mosques
b.
First indoor plumbing
Crusades
· Muslims conquer all of
·
Patriarch and Byzantine Emperor ask fellow Christians for help
· Pope calls for a Crusade: Military expedition to rescue
· 50,000 to 60,000 knights join
· Three reasons
for the Crusades:
1.
Popes
Goals:
a.
Demonstrate
Papal leadership
b.
Attempt
to reunite all of Church
2.
Knights
Goals:
a.
Religious
Forgiveness
b.
$$$$$
3.
Merchants
Goals:
a.
Open
trade routes to East
First Crusade:
- Crusaders poorly prepared for travel
-
12,000
got to
-
Retake
- Create four small
Feudal States to maintain control
-
Vulnerable
to attack
2nd
Crusade:
-
1114
-
Crusade
fails to capture
3rd
Crusade:
-
1187
Saladin recaptured
-
“King’s
Crusade”
o
Fredrick
Barbarossa
o
Philip
Augustus
o
Richard
(Lionheart)
Result:
1.
Fredrick
died (drowns), Philip gets sick and goes home
2.
Richard
led attack against
a.
Befriended
Saladin
b.
Truce: Muslims keep
4th
Crusade:
-
Called
by Pope Innocent III
-
Italian
Merchants cut a deal with Crusaders:
o
Will
equip Crusaders, if they attack Zara
o
Pope
says no, they take they deal anyway
§
Pope
excommunicated Crusaders
§
Crusaders
sacked
Crusades then became
commonplace and less important.
Results of the
Crusades:
- Failed
to retake their
- Decline
in Papal Prestige: Failure of the
late Crusades
- Decline
of Noble power: Kings take
advantage of absent Knights, key to uniting kingdoms into nations
- Decrease
in power of Byzantine: Fourth
Crusade
- Increase
of Religious Intolerance: Creates
tension between Christians and Jews
- Increase
in Trade:
- Opens
up new trade routes
- Crusaders
and Europeans develop taste for Middle Eastern goods
- Trading
cities in
- Permissive
cause of the Renaissance
Crusades End:
- Traders opposed them
- People became loyal to their countries
not religion
Black Death
Yesina Pestis: Bacteria causing the bubonic plague (Black
Death)
- Not confined to humans
- Rodents are the usual host (especially
burrowing rodents)
- Fleas and ticks transferred bacteria from
burrowing rodents to non-burrowing rodents
(rats)
- Began on the steps of
Human infection: typically bitten by infected fleas causing
infection of lymphoid
- Develop large black pustules (Buboes), 40-60%
death rate
- This is a BAD death
- Humans are not the natural host, die far to
fast, rapid rate of mutation, weaker strains
“out survive” more deadly, people began to survive, develop immunity, plague then failed to find a new host,
epidemic ended.
Spread:
1. Pneumonic: Spread by spit, infected the lungs, very
little recovery once the lungs were
infected
2. Septic: Spread by blood transfer, most deadly (very
rare)
*Typical spread of the disease was NOT person to person but
rather via fleas
Spread among populations based on fleas, once in a household
very dangerous for everyone (Bedding, clothes)
Result: The plague
spread through populations in a slow creeping manner. Typically seasonal in northern
Death toll: 1/3 to ½ the population in the 14th
Century, by 16th Century death rate dropped to 20%
The Black Death and
the development of Central Govt.
- Feudal structure
meant that people looked to local aristocrats for services
- No central authority
- Black Death struck
a city: wealthy fled to the countryside,
trade was cut off, skilled labor laid off.
- Cities experienced very high unemployment and
civil unrest, usual patrons had headed
for the hills
- City government began to step in, increase
food supply (prevent rioting), recorded
rate / spread of outbreak, shut-up infected households, rounded up strays
- Essentially a more centralized government was
forced to emerge to handle the crisis
- Government began to
develop a patron / client relationship with the people (reflects the
development of a social contract between government and working class)
- Wealthy now sought
out government jobs in which they would act as a patron (it meant more power)
Church Reform
Reform:
As the church grew
it developed some problems:
1. Bad Priests:
Don’t follow rules, under educated
2. Learning among clergy declines
3. Selection of Pope becomes too political
(Great Schism)
4. General Corruption (Priests receive bribes)
5. Priests are getting married
Reform movement
began.
Gregory VII
attempted reform:
1. Ends priests marriage
2. Lay Investitures
- Lay Investiture: Non-Church
official performs a ceremony inducting someone into a religious position
- Powerful because people are loyal to those who perform the ceremony
- Concordat of
3. Ended “simony”: Practice of buying and selling church
officials
4. Creation of College of Cardinals: select Popes
Reforms fail after
his death
Great Schism:
-
King
Philip IV (
-
Boniface
VIII challenges him
o
Kidnapped
by Philip IV
o
Escapes,
but he dies
-
Clement
V new Pope (picked by Philip IV)
o
Moves to
Papacy and French
government were in conflict
-
Pope died
Clement V elected
(French), took up residency in
-
French controlled the church, caused widespread animosity
-
Papacy lost influence everywhere but Fr.
-
Gregory XI moves
back to
-
Next
Pope selected under mob threats
o
Urban VI
o
French
select their own Pope (Clement VII)
o
This
time of division is called the Great Schism
o
Everyone
excommunicates everyone else
o
Conciliarism: challenges the power of the papacy
o
o
Result:
- Reform of the Church proves ineffective
- Power of the papacy over monarchies was
shattered
- Peoples confidence is shook in
legitimacy of the Church
- Reformers begin to appear (John Hus –
prints bible in Vernacular)
John Wycliffe
(English)
-
Believed that ecclesiastical power was limited by the individuals
morality
- Followers known as Lollards
- Ideas spread into
Jan Huss
-
Picked up on Wycliffe’s teachings, continued to attack church ethics
-
Condemned and executed by the Council of Constance
-
Teachings directly influence Martin Luther
William Ockham
- Imperial power derived from the people, not
the pope
-
Supported Conciliarism (led to the Council of Constance)
-
Challenged Aristotelian universals
Nominalism: denied the concept of using a universal to
understand a particular situation
Impact: Decline in abstract philosophy and an
increase in scientific inquiry
Ockham’s Razor: The simplest explanation
or scientific theory is usually the most correct. Encouraged scientists to cut away unproven
speculation.
Hanlon's Razor:
``Never attribute to malice that which can be adequately explained by
stupidity''.
Vernacular
Literature
Dante Alighieri, The
Divine Comedy. Political and cultural
criticism of medieval
William Langland,
Piers Plowman. Engligh life from the
perspective of a peasant
Geoffrey Chaucer,
The
100 Years War and Beyond
1337 – 1453
Long struggle
between
- War was a natural outcome of the
Feudal system
-
-
English used more foots soldiers armed with long-bow and pikes, and held
alliances in
1346
-
French use NO organized strategy, massacred by English long-bows
-
English control areas of northern
1415
-
French attack in muddy field and are massacred
-
French King captured
-
English control all of northern
1429 Joan of Arc
- Dauphine Charles allows Joan of Arch to lead
the attack against the English at
- French win, began to retake northern
1453 Recapturing
-
French began use of gunpowder and canons to retake northern
Results:
1. Both the French and English people begin to
experience national (common) feelings
2. Both the French and English royal governments
became dependent upon professional militaries instead of nobility
- Increased the importance of
money in controlling a nation
- Diminished the role of nobility
in European society
3. Led to the rise of the “new monarchies”
Chapter 11: Renaissance Society
Renaissance = re-birth of classical culture
+ the birth
of a NEW spirit of self awareness
+ sense of relief after a disastrous 14th
century
+ sense of self assertion & celebration of
the human spirit / potential
- Artistic achievement
Renaissance can be dated as 1350-1550, and broken down into
three distinct phases:
Phase 1: 1350-1400:
declining population, rediscovery of classical knowledge
Phase 2: 1400-1500:
artistic / literary achievements, population recovered, govt. stabilized
Phase 3: 1500-1550:
Fr. / Sp. Invasions spread the Renaissance to all of
Environment:
- Italian cities
never totally disappeared as the had in the rest of
- Late Middle Ages Italian cities represented
25% of the population
- By 1500 7/10 of the largest cities were
Italian
- Developed into City-States, cities function
as centers of political and ecclesiastical
power
- Countryside developed around the city
- Rural Society: Landownership / sharecropping distinguished
the social structure (80% subsistence farmers)
- Urban Society: divided by occupation
- Monopolies were standard (guilds)
- Economic change in
the early Renaissance
- Black Death
- Over production, aggregate demand declined,
prices declined, labor supply declined,
wages increased
- standard of living increased for the poor
- wealthy consumption pattern became
increasingly conspicuous (lack of motivation
for investment, heightened sense of mortality)
- Consumption of luxuries placed a higher value
on skilled craftsmen (creativity)
Family Unit:
- Primary economic
unit, as well as a grouping of relatives
- Marriage was a political / economic
transaction
- Patronage, dowry and status were primary
considerations
- Men married in their thirties (social
dysfunction), women in late teens
- Married women lived in a constant state of
pregnancy (family interests)
- Wealthy hired help, poor experienced high
mortality rates
- Life for the poor improved (but was still
fairly terrible)
- Health increased - due to increased grain
supply relative to population and new foods
- Starvation remained rare - died from disease
before you could starve
Renaissance Art
- Art represented a
combination of individual talent and predominate social ideals
- Leading edge of society
- Technical innovations - perspective &
three dimensionality
- Driven by societal demands
- Civic architecture - govt.
- Portrait painting - reflected the importance
of individuals (prestige)
- Elite patronized the arts (investment &
prestige) and the skill craftsmen (practical) who produced it
Renaissance Art can be broken down into three mediums: Architecture, sculpture and painting
- Most artists worked in all three mediums
Architecture:
- Designed and built
by Renaissance Artists (great buildings increased one's fame and prestige)
Middle Ages: Gothic
Architecture, pointed arches, vaulted ceilings, slender spires, large windows,
flying buttresses.
- Goal was to overwhelm the viewer with the
power and might of god.
Renaissance:
reincorporation of classical features
-Brunelleschi
- combined gothic and classical architecture
-
Sculpture
- Donatello: created a flowing sense of
reality, especially in the robes and clothes of his subjects
-
Judith Slaying Holofernes
(1455), demonstrated perspective and is free standing
Painting
-
Massaccio: used light and shading
to create perspective, increased the display of human emotion (the human experience became the subject of the
painting)
- The Expulsion of Adam and Eve (1425)
- The Holy Trinity (1425)
- Piero Della Francesca
- The Resurrection (1463) - displayed
technical innovations
- Botticelli:
famous for classical themes and bright colors
- The Birth of Venus (1478)
- Spring (1478)
- Leonardo da Vinci: Great master famous for observation of detail
and use of perspective
- The Last Supper (1495-98)
- La Giocada (Mona Lisa)
- Michelangelo
- Pieta:
sculpture of Madonna, new representation
- David: union of classical
sculpture and Renaissance style
- Sistine Chapel: overwhelming accomplishment, portrays a
narative of the Christian creation myth
- Saint Peter's Basilica: Begun by Bramante, finished by Michelangelo
Renaissance Ideals
Humanism: reaction to
an intellectual world that was centered on the church doctrine
- Secular
outlook, NOT NECESSARILY anti-religious
- Emphasis on human achievement
- Studied and taught “humanities” – liberal
arts
- Applied their ideas to spiritual / secular
world
- Petarch: “father of Humanism” –
- Bruni:
Greek scholar who advanced Platonic ideals
- Alberti
- Valla: Philology
Humanists and classical studies
- Byzantine scholars (fleeing Muslim expansion)
were influential
-
Developed new standards for studying classical texts and new educational
standards
= Liberal Arts:
rhetoric, grammar, moral philosophy, philology and history
- intent:
boost the abilities of the individual to reason and think
Philology: study of
words, their origins and correct usage provided the first challenge of humanist
thought to the Church intellectual tradition
- Valla disproved the Donation of Constantine
(tax exemption of the church)
Civic Humanism
-
Leon Battista Alberti: On the
Family (1443), looked at newly emerging civic virtues
-
Baldesar Castiglione: The
Courtier (1528), etiquette book for the elite seeking power and influence,
advocated the moralistic and traditional exercise of power
-
Nicolo Machiavelli: The
Prince (1513), discussion of amorality in civic leadership and Discourses on Livy (1519)
- Impact:
1. Intertwining of Classical and Renaissance
worlds
2. Explained how and why Princes gained and
maintained power
3.
Represents the first purely secular
understanding of govt.
- removed divine authority
4.
First attempt to explain the actions of govt. using a scientific
methodology
-
Key axiom was Machiavelli’s association of the Prince and peoples
interest as the same
-
Thus virtuous Prince was defined as a one who gained and maintained
power
-
Any action that increased a Prince’s virtue was good, thus power became
an end that justified any means
The Politics of the Italian
City-States
Background:
- The collapse of the
HRE and the Great Schism left no unifying force in
- Guilds and powerful
families took over regional governments:
1. Mediterranean trade enriched guild members
and merchant families
2. HRE provided a vast market for manufactured
goods of the Italian guilds
3. City-states had enough agriculture to sustain
their populations
Five Powers of
- Major industries were textiles (wool, cotton
and silk) and finance
- Established bank branches throughout
- External conflicts led to a financial crisis
- Cosimo de Medici financed govt. and took
control
- Lorenzo the Magnificent: assassination attempt, glorification of
- Girolamo
Savonarola (1452-1498) – theocracy in
- Dominated for much of their history by the
Visconti despotism and fear of Germanic
invasion
- Sforza took over during da Vinci’s stay in
- Maritime power
- Oligarchy of wealthy merchant / guilds people
(hereditary elite)
- Special treaty with the
- Government controlled trade, ensured
profitability
Impact:
Decline of Italian City
States:
- Established the
Peace of Lodi: Major powers would not
fight one another
- Instead they gobbled up the rest of
- Massive mistrust developed
- Rise of the Ottoman
Turks
- Mehmed II Conquered Constantinople in 1453
and threatened
- Cut off much of the profitable trade that the
Italian City-States relied on
- Wars of
-
- Venetians allied with
Result: Almost everyone in
Germans Sack Rome in
1527, significance is that it ends the Renaissance in Italy
Northern Renaissance
Christian Humanism: emphasis on early church writings for answers
to improve society
Desiderius Erasmus (Erasmus of Rotterdam) (1466-1536) – In
Praise of Folly most famous intellectual of his times criticized the church: “Erasmus lay
the egg that Luther hatched”
Thomas More (1478-1536) – Utopia – creates ideal society on an
island; but to achieve harmony and order people have to sacrifice individual rights
Northern
Renaissance Art
Jan Van Eyck –
Flemish painter, detailed realistic works
Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) German – foremost northern Renaissance
artist.
Myscticism: belief in personal relationship with God
Contrasting the
Renaissance and Later Middle Ages (from on-line source)
|
Renaissance |
Later
Middle Ages |
|
Philosophy: Humanism – Emphasis on secular concerns due to
rediscovery and study of ancient Greco-Roman culture. |
Religion dominates Medieval thought. Scholasticism: Thomas
Aquinas – reconciles Christianity with Aristotelian science. |
|
Ideal: ·
Virtù – Renaissance Man should be well-rounded (Castiglione) |
Ideal: ·
Man is well-versed in one subject. |
|
Literature: ·
Humanism; secularism ·
Northern Renaissance focuses also on writings of early church fathers ·
Vernacular (e.g. Petrarch, Boccacio) ·
Covered wider variety of subjects (politics, art, short stories) ·
Focused on the individual ·
Increased use of printing press; propaganda |
Literature: ·
Based almost solely on religion. ·
Written in Latin ·
Church was greatest patron of arts and literature. ·
Little political criticism. ·
Hand-written |
|
Religion: ·
The state is supreme to the church. ·
“New Monarchs” assert power over national churches. ·
Rise of skepticism ·
Renaissance popes worldly and corrupt |
Religion: ·
Dominated politics; sought unified Christian Europe. ·
Church is supreme to the state. ·
Inquisition started in 1223; dissenters dealt with harshly |
|
Sculpture: ·
Greek and Roman classical influences. ·
Free-standing (e.g. Michelangelo’s David) ·
Use of bronze (e.g. Donatello’s David) |
Sculpture: ·
More gothic; extremely detailed. ·
Relief |
|
Art: ·
Increased emphasis on secular themes. ·
Classic Greek and Roman ideals. ·
Use of perspective. ·
Increased use of oil paints. ·
Brighter colors ·
More emotion ·
Real people and settings depicted. ·
Patronized largely by merchant princes · Renaissance
popes patronized renaissance art |
Art: ·
Gothic style ·
Byzantine style dominates; nearly totally religious. ·
Stiff, 1-dimentional figures. ·
Less emotion ·
Stylized faces (faces look generic) ·
Use of gold to illuminate figures. ·
Lack of perspective. ·
Patronized mostly by the church |
|
Architecture: ·
Rounded arches, clear lines; Greco-Roman columns ·
Domes (e.g. Il Duomo by Brunelleschi) ·
Less detailed ·
Focus on balance and form |
Architecture: ·
Gothic style ·
Pointed arches; barrel vaults, spires ·
Flying buttresses ·
Elaborate detail |
|
Technology: ·
Use of printing press ·
New inventions for exploration |
Technology: ·
Depended on scribes |
|
Marriage
and Family: ·
Divorce available in certain cases ·
More prostitution ·
Marriages based more on romance. ·
Woman was to make herself pleasing to the man (Castiglione) ·
Sexual double standard ·
Increased infanticide |
Marriage and Family: ·
Divorce nonexistent ·
Marriages arranged for economic reasons. ·
Prostitution in urban areas ·
Ave. age for men: mid-late twenties ·
Avg. age for women: less than 20 years old. ·
Church encouraged cult of paternal care. ·
Many couples did not observe church regulations on marriage. ·
Manners shaped men to please women. ·
Relative sexual equality |
|
Status of Women: ·
Legal status of women declined. ·
Most women not affected by Renaissance ·
Educated women allowed involvement but subservient to men. ·
Rape not considered serious crime. |
Status of Women: ·
Legal status better than in
Renaissance |
|
Politics: ·
State is supreme over the church. ·
New Monarchs assert control over national churches. ·
Machiavelli |
Politics: ·
Church is supreme over the state. |
|
African slavery introduced. |
Few blacks lived in |
|
Exploration and expansion. |
Crusades |
Chapter 12: Protestant Reformation
Introduction
Sola Scriptura: The
“word alone”, battle cry of the reformation
Why did Luther succeed where Huss and Wycliff failed?
1. Problems were facing the church:
1. Renaissance Popes were too worldly
2. Church officials were poorly educated
3. Priests were not following the rules (wives /
worldly)
4. People developed higher standards
-educationally
/ socially
2. Christian Humanists & leaders of the
Northern Renaissance who focused on Religion presented new ideas.
- Printing press (permissive cause)
- In the north Italian Humanism was combined
with tradition theology = Christian Humanism
|
Italian Humanism: - Secular
interests - Classical
culture (Texts and language) - Beauty of
prose - Examined
words and their meaning |
Christian Humanists: - Reform
movement - Applied the
ideals of humanism to church doctrine - Sought to
make people better Christians - Education
of Women - Challenged
Church education: Scholasticism (form of teaching and learning), rote
memorization emphasized, no critical thinking |
Impact:
- Challenged
the church education
- Established a
new intellectual elite (16th Century)
- Use their
ability to reexamine church doctrine, help people become better Christians
1. Erasmus
- Goal was to unite the individual Christian
with textual basis of Christian doctrine
- Attacked scholasticism, superstition and tradition to restore
Christ to a central role in people’s lives
- In
Praise of Folly
-made
fun of illiterate and innumerate people in society
-Priests
get especially harsh treatment- illiterate
2. Thomas More - Utopia (“no place”)
-society
based on reason / mercy (Plato’s Republic + Monastic life)
-no
greed, corruption, war or crime (abolished the 7 deadly sins)
- Goal was to instruct people to live a more
Christian life
- A society founded on Christian principles
would lead to a Christian life
Why did these writers have such a great effect over people’s
ideas?
3. Invention of the Printing press
-1455 movable type and paper emerged resulting in the first
printing press.
-in 50
years 9-10 million books were printed.
-Bible is
the first book printed by Johann Gutenburg
1. Education increased
2. Enabled government to increase uniformity of
law
3. Helped spread newly emerging scientific ideas
4. Standardize language (Latin and Vernacular)
5. Increased the value placed on the discovery
of new ideas
Reformation:
1. people form own ideas about religion
2. new ideas spread more quickly
3. people criticize the church more
4. New economic pressure
- Economic innovation
of the Renaissance led people to become more independent in their daily lives
- Fostered increasing
resentment of the church tithes (and government taxes of the New Monarchs)
- Wealth form the new
world
5. Political conditions
- Feudal system had
begun to give way towards a more nationalist worldview
- Kings / Princes
will resent influence / interference of the church and rival political leaders
- Reformation became a way to challenge
political authority
- Pressure from
Result: The emergence of all these conditions at the
same instant in time ‘permitted’ the reformation to occur.
Martin Luther Notes
Background:
1. Simony = buying
and selling of church offices
2. Nepotism =
granting of church offices based on family relation
3. Pluralism =
holding several church offices at the same time
4. Absenteeism = not
showing up for work
5. Relics =
pilgrimages to worship holy relics (ie. a saints finger)
Catholic Doctrine:
Salvation – faith and good deeds – sins must be atoned for
by good works (prayer) or time in purgatory –
Reservoir of good deeds from the lives of saints
Church could bestow that grace upon anyone it in place of
their time in purgatory
Clergy was essential to help guide people to heaven
Transubstantiation
Martin Luther
n believed that salvation comes from “faith in
god”
A monk named Tetzel was raising money by
selling Letters of Indulgence (gave the
purchaser the freedom from penance)
n Tetzel was leading the purchasers to believe
that the Letter of Indulgence was freeing them from all responsibility for
their actions.
n It looked like one could buy their way into
heaven
As a response Luther wrote his 95 These
(formal statements) and posted them on the door of the local church.
n the 95 Theses were copied and then printed
and widely distributed.
n the ideas expressed in the 95 Theses include:
n Salvation by faith alone
n No need for sacraments
n Bible is the only authority
n Consubstantiation
n Challenged the concept of monastic life
n everyone has an equal relationship with god
n don’t need priests
Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther
-Luther is put on trial by Charles V at the
Diet of Worms
Charles V declared Luther an outlaw
-Luther was supported by the German people
Luther’s Ideas spread:
1. Translated Bible into German
2.
Followers of Luther became known as Lutherans
-mass held in German language
-no priests
3.
Group of German Princes join Luther and protest against the pope
-eventually became known as the Protestants
- Address to the Christian Nobility of the
German Nation
-
Who supported Luther?
1.
Princes
- Deep religious convictions
- Helped them centralize their
control, kept tax money from going to
- Confiscate church lands
(monastic)
2.
Free Towns
- Clearly separate church and
civil powers
- Allowed early MC to challenge
the privileged orders
- Urban priests embraced
Protestantism, increased personal power
3.
Women
- Mainly noble women
- Gave equal spiritual footing to
women
- Increased the emphasis on the
family as the primary societal unit
Other factors:
Charles V not able to step on Lutherans:
1.
Political struggle between Pope Leo X and Charles
2.
Pressure from
3.
Conflict with
Calvinism
notes
2nd Generation of reformers: Institutional and Doctrinal issues
I.
Zwinglianism: Initiated by Zwingli (Priest 1523)
a. Characteristics:
i.
Abolish
relics, images, pilgrimages and other traditions
ii.
Abolish
mass in favor of services
1. Did not believe in consecration of Eucharist
(symbolic only)
iii.
Abolish
pope’s authority
b. Killed by plague (1531)
II.
Calvinism: Believed in salvation by faith and
predestination
- French, kicked out, war refugee, ended up in
a. Wrote: Institutes of the Christian
Religion
b. Emphasized the absolute power of God
i.
Don’t
need structure of the Church, power rests with God
ii.
Salvation
at the mercy of god
c. Predestination meant that you were selected
by god and should do God’s work on earth
i.
Believed
that they should spread their faith to others
ii.
Create
govt. in
1. Consistory would punish crimes
a. Dancing, singing, swearing
d. Elect should rule
- How do you know you are one of the elect?
- Live right, wealth / success
III.
John
Knox: Impressed with Calvinism and
brought it to
a. Started Presbyterian faith
IV.
Marian
exiles brought Calvinism to
English
Reformation
Henry
VIII
1509 - Henry became King (18 years old)
-Devout
Catholic
-“Defender
of the Faith”
Wife #1: Catherine of
Aragon (Hapsburg), wife of Henry’s Bro.
-1516
daughter: Mary
-1527 Henry
decided Catherine could not have a male child
-Needed male child to prevent civil
war over succession (War of the Roses)
-Henry
wanted a new wife, but could not get a divorce
-Henry
asked the Pope to declare the marriage illegal
-Pope
Clement VII says nothing
-Charles V (Hapsburg) would not let
the Clement end the marriage of his Aunt (Catherine of Aragon)
-Henry
called together Parliament
-Reformation
Parliament:
1. Legalized Henry’s divorce
2.
Declared Henry to be the leader of the church (not the Pope)
Wife #2: Anne Boleyn
(1527)
-Daughter:
-1534 Parliament approved the Act of Supremacy
-Declared that the king was the
head of the church of England
-Henry seized all church property
and sold it to the nobles
-If the Catholic Church returned
to
-1536 still
no male child, Anne Boleyn beheaded
Wife #3: Jane Seymour
-1536
Edward was born (Jane dies in birth)
Wife #4: Ann of
-
German princess who did not look like her portrait
Wife #5: Catherine
Howard
-
Committed adultery and was beheaded
Wife #6: Catherine
Parr
- More of a nurse than a wife, out lives Henry
-1548 Henry died,
Edward becames king at the age of 12
-Mary became queen after Edward’s death
-Catholic -
tried to restore the Catholic religion in
-Resulted
in persecution of Protestants and the Marian Exiles
- Mary died
-
-Restored
Protestantism to
- Had to deal with the return of radical
Protestants and Catholics
- 39 Articles created a compromise between the
radicals and conservatives
- Temporary solution
Question in
- How protestant will
the church be and what role should the government have?
Others:
Anabaptists: Adult
Baptism, church only for the saved
- Seen as radical and attacked
Contrasting
Protestant and Catholic Doctrine
|
Protestants |
Catholic |
|
Role of Bible emphasized |
Bible + traditions of Middle Ages + papal pronouncements |
|
"Priesthood of all believers" – all individuals
equal before God. Sought clergy that preached. |
Medieval view about special nature and role of the clergy. |
|
Anglicans rejected pope’s authority – monarch Most Calvinists governed church by ministers Anabaptists rejected most forms of church |
Medieval hierarchy: believers, priests, bishops and pope. |
|
Most Protestants denied efficacy of some or all |
All seven sacraments |
|
Consubstantiation – Lutherans: bread and wine Zwingli saw the event of communion as |
Transubstantiation – bread and wine retain |
|
Lutherans believed in Justification by faith – Calvinists: predestination; a good life could |
Salvation through living life according to Christian
|
|
Lutherans and Anglicans believed state controls Anabaptists believed church ignores the state. |
Catholics and Calvinists believed church should |
|
Services emphasized the sermon |
Services emphasized the Eucharist |
Protestantism and the idea of
progress
Question:
Was the Protestant Reformation responsible for the rise of
liberal democracy and the industrial economy of
Is there a link between Protestant thought and democratic
government, modern science, technology and culture?
Con:
1. 16th
Century Protestants were not the rationalists of the early industrial period.
- Just as guilty of superstitious behavior as
the Catholics
-
Saw the point of life to get to heaven (like Catholics), as a result
they did not emphasize the temporal world
2. Early Protestants
did not believe in separation of church and state
- Protestant governments were models of
intolerance
3. Early Protestants
were not democratic
- Replaced the authority of the pope with
classed / ranked order in society
- Ex.
Luther opposed the peasant revolt, Calvinist doctrine of Predestination
Pro:
1. Values of early
Protestants coincided with the values necessary for the development of a
commercial revolution
- Protestant values strengthened the commercial
and industrial middle classes
- Rejection of usury on loans
- Women more economically accepted
- Increased literacy rates in the population
Result: The
reformation created a new social, political and economic way of life in which
the emerging middle class could prosper and grow.
Max Weber:
Calvinist thought promoted a life style best adapted to the
production and accumulation of wealth in early modern European history.
- Wealth accumulation requires short term
sacrifice and reinvestment.
- Protestants emphasized self sacrifice
-
Elimination of saint’s festivals and reinforcement of Sabbath emphasized
the concept of a six day work week
-
Emphasized work as a way of avoiding sinning
-
Rejection of usury law, provided capital for investment
- Accumulation of wealth became a sign of
living a ‘good life’
Counterview:
-
Impact on nationalism / rationalism:
- In some areas
(dominated by one religion), religion influenced the development of patriotism
/ nationalist feelings.
- Both Protestantism
and Catholicism behave in ways which supported emerging capitalism, and yet
were both reactionary (witches).
- Historical
discussion has shifted towards trying to understand the relationship between
political and religious experiences of early modern European people.
Chapter 14:
The Crisis of Western States
Peace of
- Created confusion as princes converted back
and forth
-
Left no room for moderates
- Both sides philosophical outlook was absolute
- Left no room for moderates, attacked by both
sides
-
Extremists dominated European politics
1550-1650 time of
internal and external conflict throughout
French Wars of Religion
- Civil War, particularly destructive to
the development of the nation
Background:
- As a result of Reformation France had a
Catholic Monarchy, but a divided population between Calvinists and Catholics
-
Both
beliefs became highly MILITANT
-
Protestants
led by the Bourbons (Henry of Navarre)
-
Catholics
led by the Guise
Huguenots: French
Calvinists who were persecuted
-
Came
from all levels of society
o
Mostly
tradesmen and artisans, nobility (40-50%) including the Bourbon line (related
to kings)
o
Made
them a powerful political threat, despite representing 7% of population
o
Centered
in growing towns and cities which also represent a challenge to growth of
Monarchical power
Opposed by Catholic Monarch
and rise of “Ultra-Catholic” party
-
Ultra-Catholics
get support from pope and Jesuits
French Monarchy:
- King Henry II died (Jousting)
- Francis II became king
-
House of Guise became influential
-
Sought to persecute Henry of Navarre
- Charles IX (Catherine de Medicis was Regent)
-
Guise eliminated Protestant influence at Court and began to attack
protestant areas
- Protestants fought a defensive war
-
War worsened with the assassination of duc de Guise
- Both sides brought in mercenary help (
-
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
- Guise used arraigned marriage of Henry of
Navarre as an opportunity to kill
the entire protestant leadership
-Impacts:
1. Deepened hatred and divisions
2. Prolonged the civil war
3. Medici blamed, monarchy seen as on the
Catholic side
Theory of Resistance:
Lawful to resist a monarchy acting in an unlawful manner
- Protestants
- Politiques:
Catholics who joined w/ protestants as a protest against the massacre
- Catholic
League: Collection of Catholic towns
that opposed Protestantism
- War of the Three Henry's: King Henry III, Henry Guise & Henry of
- King Henry III could not control the
Ultra-Catholics
- Assassinated Henry Guise and his Brother
- Henry III driven out of
- King Henry III and Henry of Navarre made a
pact to defeat the Ultra-Catholics
- Henry III was assassinated by a priest
- Henry of
- Drove out the Spanish, united
- "
- Edict
of
- Extremists continued to fight, Henry IV
eventually assassinated
- Restored the place of the monarchy and unity
of the French
Charles V of
- Left German Empire to Fredrick I
- Left Spanish Empire to Phillip II
- Mid 16th Century
-
- Great Naval power (Sp. + Port.)
Phillip II: Militant Catholic, great administrator of
government
-
very wealthy (gold / silver from
-
very Catholic (used force and cruelty)
-
very strong control of nobles
-
-
Phillip II was also engaged to Mary Tudor
Problems facing Phillip and
1. Wealth was based on money, not production
2. Catholicism brought them into foreign wars
with the Ottomans,
3. The rest of
4. Rebellion in
Philip:
- Great
Administrative mind: "King of
Paper"
- Stood against Ottoman expansion in the
-
- Devout Catholic
- Inquisition
- Involvement in the French Wars of Religion
- Marriage to Mary Tudor
- Rivalry w/
- Religious
- Personal (
- Economic: English "Sea Dogs" (Francis Drake)
- Military:
- Spanish Armada 1588, bad plan
- Turning point, people did not know it
Results:
1.
2.
3.
4. Dutch emerge as
an independent group and a commercial center of
-
-17
independent provinces
- Manufacturing / banking center of
- General discontent galvanized around rel.
differences
- Spanish rel. policy violated the Peace of
Augsburg
- Protestants resented Spanish rule
- Margaret of
- Calvinists go of Iconoclasm rampage
- Put down by Margaret and Protestants alike
- Philip II still sent troops
- Duke
of Alba
- Massacred protestants, deepened divisions and
hatred
- Open revolt
- William of
- Spanish army mutinied: "Spanish Fury" at
- Pacification of
- 12
Years Truce: ended conflict and
established a free / antagonistic
Struggles in
-
-
Poland-Lithuania: Protestantism
crept in, but tolerated
- Will fight as much
as the west, difference was that their wars
were dynastic
Poland-Lithuania
- 16th
Century:
- Death of the last Jagiellion monarch threw
more power to nobles
- Polish Diet:
Parliamentary body
- Sigismund (Swedish) became new king, Diet
limited his power
- Engaged in a series of dynastic wars
Time of Troubles:
- Began with the
death of Ivan the Terrible (killed his son)
- Civil War, Boyars refused to acknowledge a strong Tsar
- Attacked by
Poland-Lithuania and
- Sigismund captured
- Boyars
agreed on Michael Romanov as Tsar, repel invaders
- Began
the Romanov dynasty
Rise of
- Gustav I Vasa led
the independence movement
- Charles IX next
monarch, defended the Swedes from Sigismund claim to the thrown
- Danish King
Christian IV invaded
- Develop alliances with
- Gustavus Adolphus: Raised to be king, very good military
tactician
- Reorganized
the military (squadrons and regiments), increased training
- Emphasized mobility in military
- Best military of the day
- Married into Prussian nobility
- Expanded Swedish control over Baltic trade
30 Years War:
-
-
Tensions b/w Dutch & Spanish, Spanish and French, German Catholics
and German Protestants,
- 30 Years War fought in the HRE by everyone
in
- Spark that started
the war: German succession
- Electors:
3 C, 3 P, one the emperor (as King of Bohemia)
- Kingship of
- Bohemian Revolt:
- Mathias (HRE)
appointed his cousin Ferdinand as King of Bohemia (ensure next HRE a C)
- Ferdinand (Hapsburg) violated the rights of
the protestants
- March on the royal palace in
- Defenestration
of
- Began open revolt against Ferdinand
- Mathias died, Ferdinand became Ferdinand II
(HRE)
- Fredrick V (P) claimed the crown of
-
Fredrick V also controlled the
- War broke out
- Catholic v. Protestant (Everyone
participated)
-
- Catholics under Albrecht von Wallenstein crush the Protestants
- Ferdinand confiscated Fredrick’s lands and
cruelly persecuted the Protestants
Problem: Hapsburgs
had become too powerful, posed a threat to Protestantism and the free Dutch
state
- Philip III + Ferdinand = loss of balance of power
- Hapsburgs pressed their advantage, Philip III
declared war on Dutch
-
- von Wallenstein won again
- Ferdinand pressed his luck, tried to
eliminate Protestantism
- United Lutheran and Calvinist opposition
- Swedes join the battle /
- Catholic sack
- Protestant forces grew under the command of
Gustavus
- Protestants began to win
- Eventually were worn down (could not replace
losses as easily)
- Fr. under the
leadership of Cardinal Richelieu
(Louis XIII) declared war on
-
Fought in the
-
Destructive war in which
Peace of
- European powers
lost their will to fight, the war was incredibly destructive
- Restored the Peace
of
- Settled various
wars and conflicts through a series of agreements
Impacts:
1. War left HRE divided and economically ruined
- Unification will be delayed
2. Emergence of Politics over religion in
foreign affairs
-
3. End of massive religious wars
-
Chapter 15: The Experiences of Life in Early Modern
Economic Life
- Class dictated culture more than country or
geography
- Nobles from across
- Trends:
- Increase in agricultural production - more
land brought into cultivation and cleared
- Increase in population
- Increase
in commodity prices
Rural Life in the 16th Century:
- 90% of the people
lived on farms and small villages
- Social
organization revolved around three factors:
Manor, Parish and rural administration
- Cost peasants up to 50% of their income
- Bad harvests presented a constant threat
- Household: family unit (home)
- Life centered on the hearth
- Few possessions: wooden chest, few clothes, straw bed, table +
chairs (luxury)
- Rarely traveled outside village
- Agriculture:
- Northern
-
Mediterranean World: 2 field rotation, olives and grapes
supplemented income
- Mountains:
Animal husbandry - sheep (mountains), pigs (woodlands), cattle (farms)
-
Impact: agriculture was the main profession, land was the principle resource
- Lords owned land - rented it
-
- Feudal contracts dominated social / econ.
Relationship
- Fields were planted / harvested communally
- Town Life
- Guilds dominated social / econ. Life
- set standards for training, labor conditions,
wages and quality standards
- Towns were interdependent upon one another
and the countryside
- 25% poverty rate, general welfare better than
the countryside
- Larger the town the greater the
specialization of labor
- Economic Change:
- Population
explosion between 1550 and 1650
- At first an increase in agricultural
production (increased land in production)
- Cycle of growth resulted in surplus labor and
commodities for urban growth
- Eventually population outgrew production (new
farm land tended to be less
productive)
- Population increases caused problems in
cities
- Increased poverty, crime, lower wages
Price Revolution:
- Between 1500 and
1650 cereal prices increased
- Causes:
1. Population
increase
2. Increase
in precocious metals (new world)
3. War
and increased state deficits led to debasement of currency
4. Highly
susceptible to inflationary problems
- long term rents (99 years), rights to
purchase products at fixed prices
Result: "social dislocation"
- Towns:
manufactured goods inflated slower - loss of purchasing power
- Landowners: income tied to rent, fixed rent meant a loss
of purchasing power
- Payment in kind rents, became wealthier
- Peasants: largely insulated, rarely participated in
economic exchange
- Greater incentive to produce surplus crops -
greater specialization
- increased unequal distribution of wealth
among the peasantry
- Urban workers: hardest hit, many became migrant laborers
IMPACT: new understanding of wealth:
-
People used to see land / tenants as wealth (asset), shift to liquid
assets as a sign of wealth
Social Life:
- Basic assumption: inequality, hierarchy and stratification
- The group was the basic pattern of
organization rather than the individual
- Hierarchy was the
basic organizational form of society:
- Wealth was a poor indicator of position (rise
of the new rich)
- STATUS
was the key: conferred privileges and
responsibilities, reflected everywhere
as publicly as possible
- The
Great Chain of Being: universe was a
chain, everything has its place from God
all the way down to rocks (implied hierarchy and interdependence, precluded social mobility)
- All life connected and interdependent
- Body
Politic: Metaphor that saw the state
as a body (implied hierarchy and interdependence,
precluded social mobility)
- Head = rulers
- Arms = protectors
- Stomach = nourished
- Feet = labor
- Soul = church
- Hands = crafts
Social Classes
- Nobles:
legal rank that carried privileges and obligations
- Prince, duke, earl, count, baron
- Political order: held govt. positions
- Economic order: exempted from most taxation
- Obligations:
ran local areas
- Town elite / Gentry
- As wealth increased so to did power - devised
their own system of status
- Wealthy farmers who acquired their own
tenants, began to act as if they were
nobles
- Rise of the Gentry created a rift in society
b/w old money and new money
-
Nobility
of the Robe: conferred status
- Nobility
of the sword: hereditary status
- New Rich: expanding wealth and population created a
demand for an increased ruling class (result of the Price Revolution)
- New Poor: more of them and greater dislocation of the
poor (result of the Price Revolution)
- Traditional poor: "deserving
poor" were cared for by the community in which they lived (church primary actor)
- Problem:
more poor than could be supported, led to migrant labor
- As destitute migrated they lost their rights
to alms
- Crime rate increased with poverty, dislocated
poor were blamed and targeted
for retribution
- Society became increasingly reactionary
- Peasant Revolts:
- Organized petitions in response to perceived
changes in their rights / obligations
- Met tremendous opposition
- Agrarian changes led to the revolts
- Expansion of agricultural practices
- Enclosures: fenced off sections, removed decision making
from communal
agriculture
- Gave greater freedom to wealthy landowners
- Hurt the small farmer
- Seen as an "effect not a cause"
- Ket's
Rebellion (
- Similar uprisings occurred across
- German Peasants' War - a series of uprisings
- Agrarian and religious in their motivation
- Twelve
Articles of the Peasants of
- List of demands: Marriage, freedom of movement, elimination of
death taxes, stable rents, limit on labor service
- Crushed by the German nobility
Private Life
Life was in a state of change: new worlds, centralization of state, war and
religious reform
The Family:
- Primary kin group
- Nuclear: married couple w/ children
- Extended family more common in
- Linage determined
one's status
- Provided stability and predictability to
society
- Social organization
provided discipline / hierarchy that society was based on
Gender roles
- Women experienced
as many pregnancies as possible, often dictated gender roles
- Dominated work in the household
- Roles changed over lifetime
- Work was conducted within the household -
private life
- Men worked in
public and were seen as the leadership within the household
- Work often focused on heavy labor
Local Communities:
- Guided by lords
(acted as administrators of justice) and priests (conduits of communication)
Weddings:
- Public events which
served as a rite of passage into the
adult community
- Property was
exchanged and status was conferred (maintained a stable society)
Popular beliefs:
- Preliterate society, very superstitious
- Magical practices
were still accepted
- Magicians:
herbs & plants focused on diseases
- Alchemists: rocks, minerals - precursor to experimental
science
- Astrologers:
studied the stars to predict the future
- Witches:
animals
Social Disorders:
- Skimmingtons /
Charivari: shaming ritual to ensure
traditional gender roles
- Aimed at women who challenged traditional
gender hierarchy
- Became increasingly common as economic
pressure increased
- Witchcraft craze
- Witchcraft = use of magic for evil
- 1550-1650 30,000 victims (80% women)
- Why single women?
- Fringes of society
- Often sold herbs as a means of income
- No male protector
- Traditional bias (religion)
Chapter 16: The
Theory of the Monarchy
Theory of the Monarchy:
* In theory all
nobles were equal, but in practice they were divided by office and wealth
King: “1st Noble”
- Source of Kings authority was representing
the nobility
- Nobility never disobeyed a direct order, may
at times subvert orders
Royal Family: “Princes of the Blood”
- Direct relatives of the king were the next
highest nobles in practice
Great Nobles: had titles (Duke, Earl, Count, Etc.) and
wealth
- Held cast lands and amassed great wealth
- Typically lived at or visit court for
extended periods of time
- Usually had direct access to the king
- Importance of wealth
Middle Nobility: Had
enough money to visit court but could not stay
- Lived in the countryside
- Connected the upper nobility and the people
Lower Nobility: Had
enough money so that they did not labor directly
- Could not afford to visit court, relied on
Great Nobles
- Served to connect upper nobility to the
people
* Nobles increased
their wealth (thus power) through Royal Offices and Pensions
- Meant that they needed contact with the King
- Must go to court
16th Century Government
- Very weak relative
to contemporary standards
- No ability to enforce policy
- No police or significant bureaucracy
- Key to government
power was the ability of the govt. (King) to influence the nobles through a
sense of personal persuasion
- Moral Authority to lead
- The greater a king’s Moral Authority the more
difficult to resist
-
In the purest form kings will make themselves out to be a sacred element
of govt.
Keys to Moral Authority:
1. Effective “Public Display”
-
Purpose: to show that the king’s will was that of the people and must be
followed
-
Image was everything
-
Used quasi-religious rituals and ceremonies to demonstrate Moral
Authority
-
Goal was to establish a sense of “deference” to illustrate a king’s
right to lead
-
Kings used Royal Offices and Pensions as an enticement
-
Result: King became seen as a
divine figure
Ex. Louis XIV made himself into a sacred object
to increase his Moral Authority
2. “Mystery of the State”: Ruling became a “cult” of knowledge not
shared among the nobility or people
- “State Secrets” were closely guarded
-
Develop the idea that only the king could make key decisions, thus no
one should question him
- Knowledge was power
3. “Reason of the State”: Kings were to act in best interests of
the state for reasons known only to themselves (connects w/ “Mystery of the
State”)
- Others may not / could not understand the
higher purpose
4. Law:
An expression of the Kings will
- Justice was the kings will, thus Kings not
subject to Justice
- All justice was performed in the King’s name
Overall Result: Concept of the State was tied directly to
that of the King
- Created a tension between Kings and the
State (Nobles)
|
Tensions solved by a winner: 1. 2. |
Tensions remained unsolved: 1. 2. |
French Absolutism:
Response to growing social,
political and economic crisis / change:
Absolutism: Ultimate authority rests w/ monarchy through
Divine Right
- Note Arbitrary govt. was hated, govt. not
subject to any control / law
How to extend state power:
1. Extension of the Legal System: Sacred right of kings
-
Kings implemented officials to enforce justice
- usurp power of hereditary monarchy (Nobles of
the Robe)
2. War
-
Armies increasingly became the province of the government
-
Forced states to reform taxation
3. Taxation
-
Money meant power, had to establish the RIGHT to taxation
-
Fr. Paulette, tax on office
holding
-
Sp. Millions, tax on consumption (meat, wine, oil)
-
Impact:
Conflict between the
states right to taxation and the nobles view of taxation as arbitrary
government (theft) - Fronde was an example
King's Court:
- Where decisions were made
- Dominated by the king and their "favorites"
-
Fr. Cardinal Richelieu
- Sp.
Count-Duke Olivares
-
- Court favorites had to balance favor of the
king with hatred from their peers
-
Often times the subjects of conspiracy and assassination
-
"fall guy" of the regime
Louis XIII: became king as a boy
Cardinal Richelieu ruled for
him, two goals:
1.