Chapter 21: The Industrial Revolution
Traditional Economy:
- Mid 18th Century 89% of Europeans still farmed for a living
- Human Capital (Labor) drove the economy dominated by agriculture
Changes:
- Overseas trade created a greater demand for goods and manufacturing labor
- Agricultural revolution freed labor from traditional agriculture and increased food production (permissive cause to the Industrial revolution)
NOTE: Both the Agricultural and
Industrial Revolutions were "revolutionary in consequence, rather than
development"
Farming Families:
- Open-field System: farming through a communal enterprise to protect and ensure the long-term viability of the village
- The village implemented all agricultural decisions in a cooperative manner, while each individual held strips of land and rights pertaining to the land
- Effective system to support communal subsistence farming (safer)
- Limited the number of people who could be survive from output
-
Conservative system:
1. No desire for change
2. Products were perishable, encouraged subsistence farming
3. Feudal Taxes / serfdom discouraged the entrepreneurial spirit
4. Failed Risk could spell doom to the entire village
- Growth in Open Field System was through the intensification rather than innovation
- ie. Clear more land, sow more seed
- Impact of intensification and the Open Field System was violent economic cycles in which over population / famine in one generation would lead to surplus in the next (see Malthus)
- Discouraged any attempt to innovate and individual capital investment
Cottage Industry:
- Initially o supplement income families engaged in spinning and weaving through the Putting-Out System
- As the economic cycles worsened spinning and weaving became a necessary component of life
Putting-Out System:
1. Entrepreneur purchased raw material
2. Raw material was "put out" into the homes
3. People worked in their homes
4. Finished goods were returned, workers paid (piecemeal) and products sold at a profit
Evaluation of the Putting-Out System:
|
Advantages (Efficiencies) |
Disadvantages (Inefficiencies) |
|
- Required only a small amount of capital to begin - Low skill and common tools required in homes - Fit traditional gender roles (men wove, women spun) - Low wages (non-guild members) - Supported the Open Field System - Could enter the profession at a younger age - Reduced marriage age and encouraged more children (workers) |
- Low and inconsistent quality of goods - Poor workmanship easily ruined raw materials - Work force was unsupervised, thus unreliable - Output was limited to available labor - Embezzlement of raw materials by workers - Arbitrary wage cuts by Entrepreneur - No standardization of products - Totally dependent upon intensification of labor for increased output - No
innovation - Difficult for the production to be responsive to the overall economy and shifts in the market place |
- Despite the
inefficiencies the Putting-out System (cottage industry) dominated production
in
Change: The Agricultural Revolution
- The continual growth of population and intensification of the traditional economy could work only so long (eventually you would run out of resources)
-
- The Agricultural Revolution was one of technique combined with investment of capital and a commercial attitude
Enclosures: the end of the Open-Field System
Problems with the Open Field System:
1. Discouraged private investment
2. Prevented innovation
3. Prevented agriculture from being responsive to market conditions (focus was on subsistence)
Consolidation: Enclosing land in the hands of individuals was a precondition for the Agricultural Revolution
- Poor families were fast to sell out and gain wage employment on the consolidated farms
- Middling sorts (those who did well in the traditional econ.) refused to sell out and were crushed in direct competition
- The process of enclosure often elicited a violent response (esp. from the middling sorts)
- 19th Century govts. supported enclosure (19th Cent. English Parliament passed legislation)
Impacts:
1. The process of enclosing required massive labor
2. Made investment profitable
3. Encouraged large farm owners to innovate
4. Encouraged large farm owners to be responsive to market conditions
5. Led to the development of regional agriculture based upon comparative advantage
Innovation:
- Fodder Crops: crops which were primarily used to restore nutrients to the soil
- Clover and turnip restored nutrients, fed livestock and produced better manure
- Viscount Charles "Turnip" Townsend
popularized the turnip in
- Four Crop Rotation: replaced the three field system due to use of fodder crops
- wheat - turnip - barley - clover
- Meadow Floating: flooding of pastures to produce an early spring grass for livestock
- more livestock meant more manure (fertilizer)
Impact on agriculture:
1. More food produced with less human labor
2. Greater convertibility b/w grains and livestock depending on market conditions
3. Began the process of regional agriculture based on soil and climate conditions
example:
- in 1700 farmers produced enough food for 1.7 people
- in 1800 farmers produced enough food for 2.5 people
Impact on society:
1. More people
2. More demand for all goods (including manufactured)
3. More discretionary spending
4. More landless rural poor (potential to become urban landless poor)
Industrial Revolution:
NOTE: "Revolution in Consequence rather than development"
Demographic Shifts:
1750 1800 1850
80
% rural 60% urban
12 Banks (Egn.) 300
Banks (
100 % pop. increase of
1000% pop. increase of
Productivity of a single woman increased by 200X
5
million lbs of raw
588
million lbs of raw
cotton imported from NA cotton imported from NA
Coal
production increased by 10 times
Iron
production increased by 15 times
0 miles of
Railroad in GB 7500
Miles
- The story of the IR is that of the replacement of animal / human labor with hydraulic and mineral energy
- Ingenuity rather than genius was the key
- Major innovators were people responding to problems with invention
- IR: a sustained period of economic growth, brought about by the application of mineral energy and technical innovations to the process of manufacturing between 1750 and 1850
-
1. Water: access to oceans and internal waterways gave GB a transportation advantage
- Small standing army and large navy / shipping industry positioned them to take advantage of waterways
- Canal system supported by the Navigation Acts
Impact of transportation:
- tied regions together more closely
- lower price of commercial transportation drove more commercial activity
2. Economic
infrastructure:
- Generations of colonization resulted in the cultivation of foreign markets for raw materials and sale of goods
- Shipping ability key to foreign market access
- Capital resources to invest in production
- Bank of
3. Minerals and metals
- Coal: one miner could produce the energy of 20 horses
- Capital industry, dominated by the wealthy
- conditions were BAD (pg. 682)
- Thomas Newcomen began use of steam powered engine to pump water
- Demand for coal skyrocketed when it became essential to iron production
- Iron:
- Coke (pure form coal) used to smelt iron (pig iron – raw, with impurities)
- Henry Cort: “puddling and rolling” of iron lowered the cost of production and increased the quality
- cannoning
“Cotton is King”
- Replaced wool as the key textile
- As population rose (agricultural revolution) demand increased, cottage industry could not keep pace with demand (esp. in harvest season)
- To increase production John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle, which decreased the amount of time to weave
- Problem: not enough thread to weave
- To increase production of thread John Hargraves to develop the Jenny
- Problem: Jenny produced weak thread
- To produce higher strength thread Robert Awkwright developed the water frame
- Samual Cromptom developed the “Mule”, which combined the work of the water frame and the Jenny
Impact: innovations led to the develop of the factory as center of production
- First cotton factory was built by Robert Awkwright in Cromptom
Advantages (reasons
for) factories:
- Needed the space to house the increasingly large machinery
- Needed to house and protect expensive machinery
- Usually required water power
- Secrecy – “safe-boxes” were the first factories
- Keep the machines in constant use
- Supervise work force
- Ensure quality of product
- Prevent embezzlement
Impact of the Factory:
- Changed the nature of work
- Changed the physical location (home / regional) of work
- Machinery reversed existing gender roles in production (men became weavers)
- Increased the demands on commercial transportation (raw material + finish goods)
The Iron Horse
(railroads)
- As the IR focused on productive capacities the supply of raw materials became an increasing problem (coal and cotton)
- Transportation was a major problem (canal system became encumbered with the typical problems of any monopolistic system)
- Transportation became a key to creating economies of scale
Railroads:
- Richard Trevithick: attempted to apply Watt’s steam engine to carriages, limited success
- George Stevenson: innovated steam locomotion with regards to traction and pressure
- Considered the father of the modern railroad
- Developed the “Rocket”, could haul three times its weight at 30 mph
The First Railroads
- 1830
- Designed to move commercial goods, quickly caught on as a mode of human transportation
- Funding: private bills passed parliament allowing entrepreneurs to raise monies through selling joint stock
- Massing investment: paid high returns
- Impacts:
Economic impacts
1. Decreased the price
of coal (think of the impact of half priced oil!!!)
2. Increased the demand for iron and steel (massive industrial growth)
3. Railroads were massive consumers of building materials and labor
4. Leading employer
Social Impacts
5. Created a new concept of time, space and
speed
- Railroad time (standardization)
- shrank the size of the country
- Increased the rate (speed) trade could be conducted
6. Increased personal travel
- Safer
-
Travel for pleasure began, in 1851 6 million people travel to
7. Helped create a sense of nationalism as individuals worldview (travel and trade) expanded beyond their region
Entrepreneurs and
Managers
- innovation was constant – everyone was trying to innovate
Industrialists:
- successful industrialists accomplished “economies of scale” (increased output resulting in decreasing unit cost)
- Measured profit in fractions of cents
Entrepreneur – raised capital, understand production techniques and market their goods
Manager – organization, tried to maximize output from mechanized and human capital
- Attempted to increase output
1. Specialization
2. Had to educate the work force
3. Taught work ethic
4. Standards of quality
5. Thwart embezzlement
|
Josiah Wedgwood |
Robert Owen |
|
- innovated – made a better product - introduced specialization into the manufacturing process - standardization of quality - marketing genius: sold to leading aristocratic families and then marketed “replicas” |
- rose to the position of manager by the age of 19 - strove to increased the quality of workers lives to increase production - created higher quality of life in company town - limited child labor, improved schools - “paternalistic socialism” |
- Owen and others began to agitate for reform in response to increasingly harsh industrial conditions
Reforms:
- The Factory Act of 1833: prohibited child labor under 9, provided two hours of daily education, created the 12 hour workday
- The Ten Hours Act of 1847: set the ten hour work day
- The Mines Act 1842: prohibited women and children from working underground
Edwin Chadwick, Report
on the Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population in
- Painted a horrible picture of daily life
- Key factor in shifting social reform to the role of government (welfare state)
- The Public Health Act of 1848: established boards of health and medical examiners office
- Vaccination Act of 1853 and the Contagious Diseases Act of 1864: attempted to control epidemics in urban areas
Urbanization:
- Push / pull factors led to the rise of cities
- Rise of urban population (migration) and lower marriage ages + higher birth rates in families
Industrialization on
the Continent:
1851 The
- demonstrated the “British miracle” of industrialization
Much of the continent was able to steal British innovation despite protective attempts by the government
- Accelerated the process of industrialization on the continent
British competitive advantage forced continental govts. To become more involved in the development of industry
Industrialization keyed to domestic market (avoid competition with the British), but slowed by two factors:
- Slow population growth: less population pressure meant that
- French Revolution:
- Napoleon’s Continental System failed and destroyed French foreign markets
- Politics of the revolution strengthened peasant right’s to land, preventing enclosure and the agricultural revolution
- Destruction of guild system in manufacturing
- Economy remained largely regional
Stages of Progress:
- French challenges were developing effective transportation and raising capital
- Govt. stepped in to lead the development of railway system, ironworks and coalmines
- Railways drove French industrialization
- French
industrialize at a slower rate and focused more on quality goods, rather than
mass produced goods (
- Political division stood in the way of industrialization (300 states prior to 1815, 30 states after 1815)
-
o Linens and metal goods were traditional products, could not compete with British goods
- Had to protect and develop domestic markets and resources
Zollverein: German customs union created to promote effective trade and industrial development (agreed upon taxes and shared profits while protecting domestic industry)
-
Prussian led,
froze rival
-
Helped Prussian industry move goods across northern
- Precursor to German political unification?
-
Intro. Of RR
dropped the costs of industrial goods (achieved economies of scale)
- Germans became known for high quality metal goods
Dissent:
- Friedrich Engels: went to
- Wrote: The Condition of the Working Class in
- Condemned working and living conditions
The lands that Time Forgot:
- Rest of
Why?
- Regional problems:
- poor resources –
- poor transportation
–
- Common problems:
- agricultural structure perpetuated impoverished peasantry (sharecropping / serfdom)
- prevented a surplus labor force from forming
- Tariffs protected traditional economies, stifled innovation
Long Term Results:
1. Became exporters of raw materials and consumers of finished goods
2. Dual system: Areas where traditional economy and industrialization existed side by side
- Prevented industrialization
from reaching economies of scale and farmers from developing enough wealth to
access industrial goods
Spinning Jenny Spinning before the Jenny
Mule Mule Room
Chapter 22 Notes
Congress of
- Attempted to reconstruct
- Meeting was hosted and controlled by the
Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens Von Metternich
- Castlereagh:
- Tallyrand:
- Fredrick William III:
- Alexander I:
Goal: Accomplish reconstruction through the
creation of a "balance of powers" among the great European states
Five Main Principles:
1. Powers fighting Napoleon stick together,
rather than compete against one another
- Quadruple
2. Napoleon had to be deposed and the Bourbon
monarchy restored
- Principle of
Legitimacy
3. Principle rights of monarchs was to be upheld
in the face of the right to "self-determination", which would have
supported revolution
4. The great nations would no longer seek to
cannibalize smaller states as a means to increasing their power, as had been
the model in the 18th century
5. It was the responsibility of the great powers
of
Results of the Congress of
Problem:
Congress of
New Ideologies
1. Conservatism: People who supported traditional monarchical
rule
- Often times sought to limit opposition by
limiting free speech and self expression
- Relied on the use of autocratic power
- Believed that
society needed government to maintain order
- Metternich is a classic example
2. Liberalism: Grew out of the belief of the freedom of the
individual and the corruptibility of power
- Based on Enlightenment rationalism, liberals
sought the right to vote, civil liberties, legal equality, constitutional
government, parliamentary sovereignty and a free market economy.
- Believed
that less government was better government, the less interference the
better
Jeremy Bentham
-
followed the
liberal belief of utilitarianism (greatest happiness for the greatest number of
people)
o
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation
o
Rational of Punishments and Rewards
-
Argued that
social harmony was the only objective more important than personal liberty
James Mills
(son of John Stewart Mills) rejected Jeremy Bentham’s
utilitarian beliefs
-
Placed a greater
emphasis on human emotion and accused Bentham of
“mass tyranny”
o
On
o
Priniciples of Political
Economy (1848), applied economic
doctrines to social problems
o
Later in life,
began to question sacred status of private property
David Ricardo,
wrote Principles of Political Economy and
Taxation (1817)
-
Argued that govt.
should not intervene in trade
-
“iron law of
wages”: wages will inevitably fall to
subsistence levels
-
Reaction to
Ricardo was to call for limited govt. intervention to the “iron law of wages”
3. Romanticism: Intellectual movement of the late 18th
and first half 19th centuries, both conservatives and liberals alike
embraced and rejected Romanticism
-
Romantics shared
a common view of the world, who rejected the confinement of classical forms and
refused to accept the supremacy of reason over emotions
o
Mediums: poetry, painting, literature, music,
architecture, literature
-
Romantics valued nature (19th century English gardens v.
-
Romantics valued
intuition over scientific learning
-
Embraced Immanuel Kant, all knowledge is
subjective (based on our own experience)
-
Germaine de Stael: founder of
French romanticism
-
Victor Hugo: French romantic poet, wrote Notre-Dame de Paris and Les Miserables –
provided a view of social change in the FR
-
Frederic Chopin
and Franz Liszt (musicians)
-
J.M.W. Turner
painter English landscapes
-
Eugene Delacroix painter – iconoclastic French scenes, strong political messages (Liberty Leading the People, 1831)
-
Romanticism’s validation of the individual and the
individual’s experience, justification of subjective knowledge challenged
traditional authority
- Romantic’s involvement in politics varied,
but the movement led to a new understanding life
4. Nationalism: a movement which sought to create a collective identity and political allegiance of a people based upon a common cultural history / understanding.
- Focused on the people rather
than the monarch as a nation, seen as a threat by the great powers (Congress of
- Spread by the French Revolution
History of Nationalism:
- Began b/w 1815-1850 as a movement to unit the people against the tyrannical rule of monarchs
- Often emphasized folk history of various peoples to create a sense of unity
ex. The Fairy Tales (1812-1814) by two German brothers, Jacob Ludwig Grimm and Wilhelm Carl Grimm
- Nationalists reinterpreted history to create support
- Romanticism played into the nationalistic understanding of the past
- At times Nationalism and Liberalism worked together
*Despite this, remember these are two
separate and individual ideologies
ex. Giuseppe Mazzini: Italian Liberal / Nationist
ex. Georg Friedrich List: German Nationalist who rebuffed Liberalism through his work in economics
- Nationalism was embraced by people looking to
remove foreign rule
5. Socialism: broadly means the collective ownership, operation and wealth of society
- Believed that people should create a better
social organization for society
- Hoped that the industrial age would eliminate the suffering of the poor
Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825): “Father of French Socialism”
- Industrialization was the highest level of development in history
- Create a just world in which one’s productivity would equal wealth and prestige
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865); What is Property? 1840
- In the industrial world, “property was theft” as industrialist amassed a disproportionate amount of wealth
- Wanted limited possession
- Ideal: Small self-ruling communities of producers w/ material comforts but not great wealth
Charles Fourier
(1772-1837)
- People should live communally in “Phalanxes” which would provide all of their needs
- Allowed for the continuance rich and poor classes
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
- The Communist Manifesto (1848)
- Marx
believed that all societies evolved over the course of history.
- Basis of
Marxist thought rests with his analysis of history: Dialectic
Materialism.
- Marx analysis of history is
based solely on the economic relations of rich / poor classes.
- Marx developed a new philosophy for the
organization of society / economy:
Communism
(people
cooperatively own / operate means of production)
Conclusions:
1. Historical change was based upon class
struggle.
2. Future changes will also be based upon class
struggle.
3. Capitalism (like all previous systems) will
fail.
All of history is
based upon class struggle:
|
Historical
Civilization |
Have’s |
Have Not’s |
|
Ancient Worlds |
Masters / Kings
control land (Means of Production) |
Slave |
|
Medieval Worlds |
Feudal Lords /
Church own and control land (Means of production) |
Peasants / Serfs |
|
Capitalism
(Industrial Revolution) |
Bourgeoisie
(factory owners), control, operate and profit from the Means of Production |
Proletariat (urban
poor / factory workers) |
|
Socialism
(dictatorship of the proletariat) |
Government owns
and operates the Means of Production for the good of the workers |
|
|
Communism (class
less society) |
People realize the
benefits of sharing the means of production, thus government would no longer
be needed |
|
According to Marx, why would Capitalism fail?
1. Ever increasing competition would result in
greater levels of production and unemployment (due to labor saving
mechanization)
2. Greater production coupled with higher
unemployment = depression
3. Closer proximity of Proletariat leads to
their ability to effectively revolt against ruling classes.
Was Marx correct?
Protest and Revolution
- The IR, the legacy of the FR, rapid urbanization and the spread of new ideologies challenged the restoration of traditional monarchies
- Pattern of instability developed:
Protest → govt.
repression → heightened sense of political awareness → protest
- As urbanization increased so to did the social discontent
- Proletariat represented a dangerous and volatile component in Euro. Society
Early Cities:
- Neighborhoods developed around regional / ethnic migration and identities
- Neighborhoods developed support networks to provide safety
- Quickly overwhelmed by mass migration
-Problems:
- Extreme poverty
- Prostitution: widespread, health problems
- Crime: rampant theft, mugging, pick-pocketing, extortion, ect.
- Neighborhood support systems could not deal with mounting problems
- Middle Class viewed these problems as a disease (control issue)
- Creation of police
- Ability to work became associated with morality
- Those unable to work had no one to look to (industrialist did not behave like traditional local lords)
- People began to look to the govt.
“Revolution in
Government” (1820-1840)
- Govt. began taking responsibility for managing the industrial society
- the beginning of the “Welfare State”
Two solutions to the role of government:
1. Inaction:
do nothing
- Malthus argued that social problems were “self correcting” and govt. intervention would only increase the severity of the problem
ex. Potato Famine
2. Government should
intervene
- Poverty was the result of society
- Society should correct the problem
- “Social Question”: how should govt. treat poverty, ultimately what role should the govt. play
- Parliamentary intervention in laws dealt with the most violent problems of society
ex. Factory Act of 1833
Revolutions of 1830
- Throughout the 1820’s small protests and revolts broke out in response to poor social conditions
- Met with govt. repression and violence
ex. “Peterloo” Massacre in
- 1829 poor harvests
and a bad winter put the people of
1830
French Revolution of
1830
- Charles X (1824-1830) became an increasingly unpopular monarch (absolutist, who worked to restore the role of the church)
- Dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, got an even more liberal group elected
- Issued the Four Ordinances:
- Censored the press, revised electoral law, dissolved newly elected CD, called for new elections
- 75% inflation rate caused economic hardship
- July Revolts unseated the Bourbon Monarchy
- “July Monarchy”: Louis-Philippe became the new monarch
- Accepted a Constitutional Monarchy
- Protests only, fell apart in face of govt. authority
- Workers protested by breaking machinery, no revolution
- Developed democratic selection of govt. officials in most cantons
- Philhellenic Movement sought to free
- Popular throughout the major European powers, in line with the Congress of Vienna
- Treaty of
-
- Created a monarchy, placed a German on the throne
- Movement was based upon cooperation (Congress of Vienna), but Russians looked to extend their sphere of influence into the Balkans
- Belgians demanded
freedom from protestant
- Great Powers compromised:
- Independent Belgium could exist, but it had to maintain neutrality
- Issue in WWI
Revolution in
-
- Despite nationalistic feelings, the Poles remained divided until after WWI
- Northern Italian
states of
- Crushed with force, drove the nationalists underground
- Young Italy, led by Giuseppe Mazzini
Importance of 1830
Revolutions:
- Showed that change
was taking place in
1. Showed that the fate of the
2. Demonstrated the vulnerability of
international stability – domestic crisis
3. Showed growing awareness of politics at all
levels of European society.
Reform in
- Landowners ruled
- Migration had moved population from the countryside to the city, but electoral districts had not changed
- “Rotten Boroughs” – Countryside could dominate politics
- Liberals wanted to redistrict based on population
The Great Reform Bill of 1832: Allowed greater electoral participation and strengthened the role of the industrial elite (did not change the districts)
- Did not satisfy the Radicals
- Established a pattern of minimal reform to appease the masses
Chartist movement:
- Peoples Charter 1838: demanded universal suffrage, secret ballot, Parliamentary salaries, elimination of property requirements to hold office, equal election districts and annual elections
- Wanted democracy
- Swept through working class communities
- Radicalized – fragmented and failed
- Movement died off in 1848 revolution
Luddism
- As mechanization increased, wages decreased, demand for skilled labor decreased
- Luddist workers smashed machines in protest
-
Represented the crisis faced by skilled craftsman of
Women
- Key segment of the work force
- “Sweat labor”- subcontracted labor done in the home, hard work low pay
- Used to drive down wages and break unions
- Unions excluded women
- Many served as domestic servants, isolated and hard to unionize
Revolutions of 1848
Background:
1840’s:
1. Middle and lower classes were agitating for
democratic government
-
Chartists in
-
“Banquet
Movement” in
2. Nationalism began to develop into a cohesive
movement in many areas
- Based upon linguistic lines
- Appeared in almost every state
1846
- Last great famine year in European history
- Higher food prices shrank disposable income, created an industrial depression
-
Higher unemployment rates emerged
throughout
1848
- Parisian government cancelled the largest “banquet”, causing open revolt
- National Guard defected
- Louis-Philippe forced to abdicate
-
- Provisional Government: fragile coalition of moderates and radicals intent upon keeping the working class from further revolt
- Supported “right to work”, supplanting the “right to property” as the guiding principle of government
-
- Largely powerless and ineffective
- “National Workshops”: intended to address unemployment problems through providing job training and welfare monies to the unemployed
- Failed, not enough resources and flooded with demand
- Govt. quickly disbanded NW
- Recalled General Louis Cavaignac
from
- Used force and bloodshed
- Dec. 1848 Louis Napoleon was elected to run
- 1851 Louis Napoleon performed a Coup de ta and made himself Emperor
German States
- Worker protests led
to liberal reforms in many areas:
-
- Established a National Prussian Assembly
-
- Two problems: Non-Germans living in German states and Germans living in non-German states
-
“small” or “large” German state?
- F.A. perused the “small” German state
- F.A. offered crown to Fredrick
Wilhelm IV of
- Turned it down, principle of legitimacy
- Unification crumbled for a generation
- Massive multinational empire, directly
challenged by the rise of nationalism
and independence movements
-
- Austrians used force with mixed results
-
-
- December 1848, Ferdinand I abdicated, Franz Josef I (1848-1916) became monarch
-
- Northern
-
- Mazzini recalled Garibaldi to organize resistance
- Beginning of the “Red Shirts”
-
1850
-
New trends:
1.
-
“Humiliation of Olmutz”,
2. European powers solve popular unrest with
minimal reforms
-
3. Concert of
- Zero sum paradigm dominates international relations
4. Popular unrest defeated by a new political coalition – middle class and traditional authoritarian elite
- Both groups see popular unrest as a direct threat to their station in life, come together to limit reform
-
Use repression and force
Chapter 23
Impact of the Revolutions of 1848
- Attempted revolution from lower classes failed
- Reaction of governments was to increase the centralization of power to control the masses
The Crimean War
Fought over the “Eastern
Question”: What would the great
powers do in response to the decline of the
-
- Russian ambitions sought to expand their
sphere of influence throughout the Balkans and the
-
Sought control over the Bosporus Straight, the
Why?
1. Needed a warm water port with access to the Med.
2.
3. Traditional sphere of influence (Eastern Orthodox Christianity)
1852:
1853: Russians
claimed the right to rule over Eastern Orthodox Christians in the
- Turks rejected the Russian claim
- Russians invaded the Danubian Principalities and sink the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Sinope
- The Russians
attempted to direct the terms of peace,
- Why?
1.
GB wanted an independent and weak
2. Fr. Wanted to increase their prestige in international relations and to protect their regional interests
3.
Piedmont-Sardinia entered the war to try to earn independence and
unification of
-
- 322 days of siege to take
- War ended with the Peace of
-
-
- Western Allies gained prestige at a high cost
Cost of the War
- 750,000 dead, bulk of which were Russian
- Terrible medical conditions, Florence Nightengale introduced sanitation
-
Charge of the
Light Brigade
Impacts:
-
Further isolated
-
Helped
-
Concert of
- Piedmont-Sardinia realized that unification would only come by force
|
|
Italian Unification
Risorgimento: cultural / political movement to reunify
- Met with failure throughout the first half of the 19th Century
Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810-1861): Driving force of Italian unification, political
realist who used diplomatic maneuvering and military success to unify
- Premier of Piedmont-Sardinia for King Carlo-Alfonso and King Victory Emmanuel II
- Cavour
secured a defensive alliance with
-
Treaty of Plombieres
- 1859 Cavour provoked
- French troops promptly defeated the Austrians
- Piedmont-Sardinia
claimed
- By 1860
Piedmont-Sardinia joined with the rest of northern
- Garibaldi was leading an uprising
starting in
- “Red Shirts”
- Cavour,
fearing a rival, pushed his troops into
- Garibaldi yielded to Cavour
and Emmanuel II, remembered as a great nationalistic patriot of
1866:
-
1870: Prussians defeated the French
-
KEY: Cavour used
international events to prepare the way for unification
- Realists accept given conditions and make the best of them
- Opportunistic
German Unification
Otto Von Bismarck: Architect of German Unification
- Realpolitik: Politics of based on realism and practical nature of reality
o Ruthless pursuit of one’s rational interests by any means necessary
- Rose to power in the United Diet of Prussia as a reactionary
- Believe that the traditional elites must join with the nationalists to survive
o Used common ground of nationalism to manipulate and weaken the liberals
1862:
Kaiser Wilhelm I attempted to reorganize the military
- Met strong reaction by the traditional elites
-
To quell the
crisis Wilhelm appointed
1864:
-
Sought to regain traditional German
-
Won easily,
o Settlement created administrative problems
for
1866:
7 Weeks War
-
Began over administrative disagreements between
-
- Prussian victory
- Transportation, training, homogenous forces, guns
- Peace
terms removed
- Piedmont-Sardinia gained the Venetian territories
-
- Established the Dual Monarchy, still did not settle all of their problems
1870: Franco-Prussian War
- Southern German states feared unification around Prussian power
o Religion, militarism and authoritarianism
-
Napoleon III of France also opposed a strong
-
o Leak info to both nations newspapers
- French declared war
-
Southern German
and Prussians united and won easily
o Railroads, organization, planning, military intelligence
o French were poorly led and poorly trained
1871:
German Empire (Second Reich) under the leadership of Bismarck and the Prussian King
-
Proclamation of
Empire signed
- Created the Reichstag – extremely weak national leg. – all power remained with the emperor
o
Note on
Impact of German Unification
-
Became the
greatest industrial empire in
-
Shifted the
balance of power
-
Created a
yearning for national prestige in
Nationalism between 1850 and 1870
- States constructed new national identities through ideology and symbolism
- Monarchs were still important, but no longer the all encompassing representation of the nation
- Nationalism occurred through the leadership of the realists, not the liberals
- Conflict and war were accepted
extensions of domestic politics under the realists
- Nationalism became tied to
conflict and violence (Italian / German unification both revolved around
warfare)
Realism:
Art: see Powerpoint notes
Literature:
Charles Dickens: Hard Times (1854), looked at the harsh realities of urban life
Gustava Flaubert:
Dictionary of Accepted Ideas (1881): Criticized Western Intellectual History
Bouvard et Pẻcuchet (1881): Satirized modern application of enlightenment ideas
Madam Bovary (1856): Recounts the story of a young bourgeois wife who seeks adventure and ends in ruin
- Illustrated the hypocrisy of the bourgeois
Fyodor Dostoyevsky: Crime and Punishment (1866)
- Developed the idea that god no longer existed, man must shape his own morality
- Shifting of the focus onto the failures of an arrogant “smug” bourgeois
- Progress could only occur through struggle
Realism in Science:
Charles Darwin (and
Alfred Wallace)
- Naturalist, observed and studied nature to understand it better
- On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859)
- Evolution was a continual process based upon mutation, competition for food supply and survival of the “fittest” (best adapted) animal
- Tied to realist movement: progress based upon struggle
Realism in History:
Marx as a realist:
- Historical progress was the result of class struggle for change
- Das Kapital (1867): Marx’s indepth analysis of capitalisms cyclical nature resulting in a collapse of the system
- Applied realists methodology to understanding history
- Evolutionist approach to historical analysis
- Embraced a Marx like govt., really a rejection of nationalism
- Quickly collapsed
-
Demonstrated the growth of Patriotism and state power
Reforming European Society
Three different models
appeared in the second half of the 19th Century:
- Use of technocrats to run and reform French
Society
- Technocrat: person of extreme skill and expertise in
government affairs
- Napoleon III used Central Bureaucracy (merit)
- Used public opinion to eventually gain
support
- Promised every group reform and a better life
to get elected in 1848
- 1851 Coup d etat
- Image of success critical
- Supported
industrialization, private banking system and state sponsored public works
-
Provide social reform by increasing the standard of living among all
peoples
-
- Baron Georges Haussmann
transformed
- Typical
technocrat, “the Attila of the straight line”
- Gentrified
-
Broadened the streets of
- Changed
- Changes referred to as the “Haussmannification
of
- Foreign Policy: attempt to restore French prestige
- Crimean War and
wars of Italian unification successful
-
-
- Rise of
- Lost in the Franco-Prussian War
-
Napoleon had failed to reform military with technocrats
2.
- Two common perceptions of British life in the
19th Century:
1. Massive
industrial expansion
2. Social Harmony
* Reality was that
- Victorian Society: defined by the compromise between industrials
demand for liberty and workers demands for government intervention
Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881): Tory leader (Conservative party)
- Supported
government intervention on behalf of the weak and poor
- Supported the traditional institutions of
British politics as a means for effecting change
- 1867 expanded electorate to include the
middle class
- expected them to
vote with the Tories (wrong)
William Ewart Gladstone
(1809-1898): Liberal party leader
- Classical liberal, opposed to state
intervention
- 1868 –
1874 Great Ministry
- Abolished
Tariffs, cut defense spending, lowered taxes, reformed the military and
bureaucracy based on merit (replaced the patronage system), increased education
for the electorates
- In general the Liberal party agenda was an
attack on privilege by encouraging the individual
-1874-1880 Tory Democracy
- Reaction to
liberalism, embraced protectionist patterns
- Kept worker
rights as a central platform
- 1880 –
Liberals back in power
- Extended
franchise to agriculture workers
- By 1884: universal male suffrage
Liberals and Tories
continually increased democratic participation to gain electoral support –
result avoid revolt through democratic reform
3.
- Began
as unreformed semi-feudal autocracy
- Tsar had
absolute power
Problem of serfdom in the 19th
Century:
- Moral
- Economic
stagnation
- Social
threat of landless workforce
- How do
to end it?
Alexander II “Tsar Liberator”
- Crimean
War motivated him to embrace reform
- Ended
Serfdom (impact roughly fifteen times more people than the Proclamation of
Emancipation):
- Freed serfs and
granted them land (they pay govt. for land over time)
- Govt. give landowners lump sum payment
-
Problems:
o
Landowners gave
up worst land at high prices
o
Diminished living
standards of average citizen
-
Govt. increased
in size and scope to handle the problems
- Economic
reforms cleared the path for political reforms
- Great Reforms: Created Zemstovs (locally elected
assemblies to govern local areas) 1864
- Populist movement: led by the intelligentsia, demanded popular
participation in politics
- Alexander II
oppressed them with force
- “Will of the People” Movement developed
into the “Emperor Hunt”
- Alexander II
killed by an assassin (legs blown off)
Chapter 24: The
Crisis of European Culture 1871-1914
2nd
Industrial Revolution
-
1896 increased $ supply resulting from the discovery of
new gold fields in
- Fueled the electrical and chemical industries
- Internal combustible engine drove electrical industries
- Chemical: fertilizers, synthetic fibers and gasoline distillation
Impact:
1. Completed the process of creating a “mass” society
-
2. Allowed countries without strong coal / iron resources to industrialize
3. Increased international competition
- ↑ tariffs continent wide,
4.
5. Industry became increasingly capital intensive
6. New social, economic, and political tensions
arose throughout
European Economy and the
Politics of Mass Society
1872-1914 – rate of urbanization continued to boom
- Urban centers came to dominate provincial culture as centers of production, distribution and communication
1873-1895 – Series of Economic slumps (falling prices and production) became termed as the “great depression” of the 19th century
- Period of economic fluctuation rather than sustained recession
- Agricultural boom increased recessionary cycles
- Fertilizers created greater output – drove down prices – increased unemployment
- Bust periods were increasingly seen as dangerous of the large amounts of capital required to enter industrial growth (electrical / chemical industries)
-
Lesson: Business cycle needed to
be regulated
-
Solution: Regulation through
cartels
Cartels: Combination of firms who work together to set prices and production levels
- Oligopoly
- Vertical Consolidation - all aspects of production
- Horizontal Consolidation - all firms who perform same task
- Consortiums: group of banks who pool resources to set fees and provide greater amounts of capital at a decreased risk to each member
-
Tariffs were used to protect
domestic industry throughout
-
State:
Business generally welcomed greater State regulation to offset increased risks resulting from the massive capital demands and nature of heavy industry.
European Industrialization broke down into distinct geographical regions:
- North / West = industrial
- South / East = Agricultural
Mass Democracy Breaks form
Liberalism
Trade Unions
- included both skilled and unskilled labor
- James Keir Hardie began the Labour Party to represent workers in Parliament
- 1892 won election as a member of the House of Commons
- 1906 Labour Party had 26 seats
- Fabian Society - moderate Socialists who sought to create a Socialist state through reform (Intellectuals)
- Beatrice Webb, Sidney Webb, George Bernard Shaw, Annie Besant, H.G. Wells
- Supported the Labour Party
Impact of Fabian Society and Labour Party was to force the Liberals to reform
- "New" Liberals led by David Lloyd George, elevated the House of Commons and expanded Govt. Welfare services
-
Trade Unions continued to grow as mistrust of the "
Political Struggles in
-
- Worked with Liberals to attack foreign elements
- Kulturkampf: Attack on any foreign influence (Papal influence)
- Expelled Jesuits, removed priests from state posts, attacked rel. education and created Civil Marriages
- Met opposition - forced to abandon program
- Early example of German Nationalism turned exclusive
Social Democratic
Party - Marxists
- Attacked by
-
-
Revisionism within the Social Democrats focused on the eventually failure of Capitalism
- Edward Berstein
Revisionism failed because Trade Unions continually achieved higher standards of living for their membership, while new political parties provided assimilation into the political process.
- Labour Party and Social Democrats – acceptance of welfare reform
- In
- With the rise of the Right the Kaiser kept authoritarian power
Mass Politics in
-
Created a single national culture
- Compulsory Education
- Compulsory Military Service
- Technology – mass transportation and communication
- Marianne – Female symbol of the
- Rocked by two subsequent national scandals
Boulanger Affair
- General George Boulanger – came to national prominence as he reformed the Army
- “The Man on Horseback” – used romantic military imagery to increase Fr. patriotism
- Attempted to win election with the backing of conservatives and reinstate authoritarianism
- Accused of treason and forced to leave the country
Impacts:
1. Success was tied to rising nationalism
2. Left behind a strong conservative movement
- Right wing of the political spectrum became increasingly powerful
Dreyfus Affair (1894)
- Commonly known as “the affair”
- Dreyfus was an
Alsatian Jew accused of selling secrets to the Germans, put on trial and found
guilty (sentence to life on
- Example of Nationalism leading to xenophobia
- Case was tried in the media – demonstrated the power of mass communication
- “the affair” came to identify one’s political ideology:
- Pro-Dreyfusards = Left / Liberals
- Anti-Dreyfusards = Right, Traditional Institutions – Catholic / Military
- 1905 Dreyfus was exonerated
Impacts:
1. Mass Media became a real and practical check on govt. authority
- Emile Zola: “I Accuse”, supported Dreyfus in the media
2. New interest groups gained a foothold in govt. affairs
-
Rrugstrasse
“
- “New Right”: 1900, began to challenge the rise of Liberalism and the emerging Bourgeois power
- Characterized by authoritarianism and nationalism based on a sense of “pan-Germanism”, anti-capitalism and anti-Semitism (exclusionary in nature)
-
1895 Karl Luegar elected to mayor of
- Early example of “scapegoat” politics
Rise of Mass Politics
- Characterized by the growing power of public opinion as a political force
- As mass politics developed, minority groups became increasingly identified as “outsiders” or “foreign influence” and pushed to the fringes of society
- Ethnic minorities, Jews and Women commonly id. as outsiders
- In response, some fringe groups sought assimilation and others sought to destroy the system
Women in the 19th
Century
-Industrial Revolution led to the development of the Bourgeois “culture of domesticity”
- Assigned women to the home & child rearing
- Limited women’s rights – effectively removed women from public roles
- Women’s pay 1/3 to ½ of men for the same labor
- Unequal divorce rights
- Denied educational and economic opportunities
- Denied the right to vote and participate in the political process
- Middle Class women (self identified as “feminists”) began to push for equal rights
- Embraced mass movements and interest group politics
- Attacked by conservatives as immoral
- 1878 International Congress of Women’s Rights marked the beginning of a permanent establishment of women’s interest groups
- Most feminists were women, but most women were NOT feminists
-
Problems:
1. Movement tended to fragment around a series of related concerns (suffrage, education, economic opportunity)
- Two camps developed: suffrages / broader emancipation
2. Represented a challenged to established societal value system
- Feminists were labeled as not being “respectable” or ”real” women
3. Blocked from joining established political interest groups
- Trade Unions and Political Parties alienated women’s groups
Movement for the Vote:
- Mass politics and popular support became a model for change
- Developed independent organizations that rivaled Trades Unions and Political Parties
- Hubertine Auclert – French Feminist leader
- Emmeline Pankhurst – British Feminist leader (and Daughters)
- Women’s Social and Political
- 1908 the WSPU sponsored a rally of 250,000
women in
-
- Marks a change in the women’s movement – increased militancy
- “Suffragettes” became a derisive term for militant feminists
- Militant feminists were willing to use violence
- Focused attacks on personal property
- Met arrest with passive resistance – hunger strikes while imprisoned
- Parliament passed laws supporting forced feeding
- Cat and Mouse Act 1913- Free women until they began to eat and then throw them back in jail
Right to Vote:
1918:
1920:
Post-WWII:
Social Reform
- Sylvia Pankhurst (Emmeline’s daughter)
led the social reform movement in
- Worked against “double oppression” = Work and domestic life
- Women were increasingly excluded from Trades Unions, who supported the domestic ideal of womanhood
German had the largest Women’s Socialist movement
- Clara Zetkin was successful in uniting feminism and socialism in an attempt to create reform
The Jewish Question and
Zionism
1868-1914 saw the movement of roughly 2,000,000 Jews from
- Response to economic downturns which sparked scapegoating of Jews, discrimination, oppression and govt. sponsored Pogroms
The term Anti-Semitism (1879), which means hostility towards Jews, was created in an attempt to develop a pseudoscientific legitimacy to bigotry and prejudice against Jews.
- Easter
- Pogroms often turned from mob violence into massacre
-
-
As the ravages of the IR continued, economic fluctuations created
greater hardship on the people and mass emigration from
-
Georg Von Schonerer
(
-
Assimilated Jews in
- Pogroms reemerged in the West
Zionism
Zionism: a Jewish nationalist movement aimed at
creating an free and independent Jewish state in the
area of
- Theodor Herzel (1860-1904), Austrian Jew, wrote The Jewish State (1896)
- by 1914 roughly
90,000 Jews had emigrated to
-
Many Western European Jews opposed Zionism, greater support in
Impact of the
development of mass politics
- Minority
groups increasingly became identified as opposition groups
- Nationalism became increasingly defined on exclusionary terms
- Rise of xenophobia
throughout
Workers and minorities on the
Margins
- Propaganda became increasingly important to the political system
Anarchism
Ravachol – Parisian anarchist /
bomber, whose trial captivated
- Reactionary against Industrial / mass society
Mikhail Bakunin – Russian anarchist, influenced by Proudhorn
- Became the voice of European anarchists
Prince Petr Kropotkia – Joined communism and anarchism
- Stressed interdependence instead of competition
Anarcho-syndicalism: French movement centered in Trades Unions
- Militant group who supported the overthrow of Bourgeois society in response to poor working conditions
- Georges Sorel, Reflections on Violence 1908
- “Direct Action”: activities aimed at increasing problems in society as a means of preparing for the overthrow
- Encouraged minor acts of sabotage as a means of reminding workers of the impending doom of capitalism society
Anarchism mainly impacted western Europe
- Popular with those who suffered most in the Industrial society
- Popular with political groups increasingly pushed to the margins of society
- Anarchists posed little threat to increasingly centralized government systems
*All political movements will be temporarily silenced by War in 1914.
Shaping the new Consciousness
The Authority of Science
- Science became the new source of knowledge in society
- pseudoscience became a very real danger to "outsider" groups
Physical Sciences
- James Clerk Maxwell - identified the relationship between electricity and magnetism
- Led to the discovery of the electromagnetic spectrum
- Radio / Television
- Periodic Table established in 1869
- Marie Currie and husband Pierre discovered radium and polonium
- Max Planck, Albert Einstein, and Niels Bohr challenged classical physics of absolute and determined principles - creating physics based on relativity and uncertainty.
- Quantum Theory (Planck) - Theory of Relativity (Einstein)
Biology
- Louis Pasteur - developed methods of inoculation to prevent the spread of disease
- Gregor Mendel - geneticist (peas) - Mendelian laws of inheritance
Impact:
1. Improved general levels of public sanitation
2. Beginning of medical science
Noble Prizes: Physics, medicine, chemistry, literature and peace.
Social Sciences
Archeology:
- Heinrich Schliemann: German, discovered city of
- Sir Arthur Evans: English,
History:
Leopold von Ranke: German, emphasized objective basis for history - "scientific" emphasis
Economy:
- Neo-Classical school developed under the leadership of Alfred Marshall
- Emphasized importance of the individual in the market place
- Theory of Marginal Utility
Psychology:
- Wilhelm Wundt: First scientific attempt to psychology
- Ivan Pavlo: Identified conditioned behavior
- Sigmund Freud: Examined the importance of the unconscious
- Gustave Le Bon: Psychology of Crowds (1895), examined irrational behavior of mobs
Criminology:
- Cesare Combroso: The Criminal Man (1876), attempted to identify attributes of criminals
- Widely disputed
- Emile Durkheim: father of modern sociology, paired psychology and environmental factors to understand behavior
Biological Determinism: Hereditary traits determine one's behavior and potential, became increasingly popular due to the impact of pseudoscience
- IQ tests were developed to measure "intelligence"
- The Descent of Man (Charles Darwin) 1971, argued that due to evolutionary trends men had developed superior mental faculties to women (women needed protection from men - men had to evolve faster and become superior - women's dependence made them inferior)
- Marks the advent of "social proofs" to support biological determinism
- "Social Darwinists" applied "survival of the fittest" to social settings
ex. Paul Broca: French social Darwinist tied intelligence to skull size
- Biological Determinism became tied to racial and gender divisions in society
"New Women": a reaction against the cult of domesticity
- Characteristics include intelligence, strength and sexual desire
- Birth control emerged as a central issue of control and female sexuality
New Consumption
- Lev Tolstoy - Russian novelist, condemned materialism of European society
- Disposable Income: Extra money
- Bon Marche
Department store (
- Leisure time:
- The Theory of Leisure Class (Thorstein Veblen) 1899
-
Rise of spectator sports, re-establishment of the Olympics and increased
prominence of urban ascetics
Chapter 25: The
Balance of Power 1870-1914
(Introduction: Causes of WWI)
Traditional historical analysis understands the outbreak of WWI as connected to the broad European culture that existed between 1870 and 1914
- Specifically: Militarism, Imperialism, Nationalism and Alliances
- More recent work has focused on the role of the mass media, authoritarian leadership, technology and industrialization
The Three Emperors
League
- 1873
- Conservative powers
-
-
-
- “Sick Man of Europe” – on the verge of collapse
o Fiscal and ethnic problems
-
o Wanted to maintain a weak
Balkans
-
Ruled by a combination of
o Serbs, Bosnia-Herzegovina clamoring for independence
Instability of
-
Franco – German tension required that German keep on
good terms with
- English dependency on imports meant that they had to maintain naval superiority
o Increase in German naval power seen as a direct threat (Militarism)
-
Balkans
presented a challenge to the Three Emperors
o Competing
interest b/w
o Congress of
§ A.H. gained control over Bosnia-Herzegovina
§
Serbian nationalism was abandoned by
§
Ottomans kept
§
Created a sharp division b/w
-
Dual
o 1882
-
1885
o Created
division and tension b/w
o
o
- 1890
- 1894
- 1908-1909 Austria-Hungary annexed
Bosnia-Herzegovina
- Slap
in the face to
Imperialism:
- 1870-1914 brought with it a “new imperialism” characterized by industrialization, intensification and increased technology
-
Technology:
o Steam ship
o Railroads
o
o Guns
o Communication
o Medicine: Quinine
- Motives:
o Economic: Connected to the demand for natural resources for their industrial economies
o Nationalism
§ Greater sense of National prestige
§ Driven by mass media / newspapers
· Hobson, Psychology of Jingoism 1901: derided the use of “invented patriotism” to drive demand for war / conquest
§ Colonial territories used as bargaining chips by the Great Powers
o Geopolitics: Politics of geography
§
Strategic
importance, fueling stations, trade routes, mineral resources
§ Led to a Naval arms race – drove heavy industry
- Patterns of Imperialism
o Direct v. Indirect Rule
o “the scramble for
§ Driven by Mass Media
§ Personal glory, mineral resources, national prestige, pseudoscientific racism, recession in Euro.
§ Process had little Euro. To Euro. Conflict, but massacres were common
-
o Gain access to modern weapons through the Italians to fight off other Europeans
o Then
rejected the Italian claims of
o Defeated Italian forces at the Battle of Adowa
-
Boer War: British fought Afrikaners for control of
o GB
afraid the Afrikaners would ally with
o Cecil Rhodes drove public opinion and support for the war
o Bloody difficult struggle, Afrikaners eventually surrendered, gained right to decide racial settlement – segregation began
-
Scramble for
-
Imperialism in
o
o Used indirect rule with a heavy British oversight
o
o 1839 Chinese attempted to restrict opium sales
§
Opium War
1839-1842
§
Treaty of
§ Honk Kong, several other ports
§
§
Forced
- Boxer Rebellion: 1900 Peasant unrest turned into open rebellion, Europeans could not control population with limited forces
- Demonstrated the need for indirect rule
- Critiquing Capitalism:
-
J.A. Hobson, Imperialism, A Study 1902
- Under consumption & surplus capital forced imperial expansion
-
Lenin, Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism 1916
- Capitalism is inherently driven to imperialism
- Hobson and Lenin provide an understanding of the connection b/w imperialism and domestic problems on the part of late 19th Century political philosophy
Chapter 26 War and Revolution, 1914-1920
Notes
European Paradigm 1914
-
Society was
progressing towards the state of perfection
-
Society was
essentially harmonious and stable
-
War was a useful
extension of diplomacy and limited in nature
o
Technology would
prevent a long war
o
Social Darwinism
o
Franco-Prussian
war
o
Popular military
philosophy
Outbreak of the war:
- Militarism:
intense increase in the production and planning for military operations
- Planning
developed strict timetables for actions
- Served to
restrict the flexibility of governments once the plans came into action
-
-
-
- SPEED THE KEY TO
ALL PLANS
- Assassination of Franz Ferdinand and wife
- Gavrilo Princip acting outside
the Serbian government
- 5 weeks prior to declaration of war:
-
- Serbians attempted to meet the ultimatum,
A.H. rejects attempt and cut off diplomatic relations
-
-
- A.H. declared war on
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Terrible
treatment of Belgians embittered both sides
1st
- Stopped the
German Offensive
Battle of Tannenbery
and Battle of Masurian Lakes: Russians lost two entire armies in the east
- Russian military
poorly led, lack of supplies and training
Begin Trench Warfare
Russians suffered
tremendously, but did fulfill their purpose (took pressure off Fr)
Failure of Offensive War:
-
10 month German
offensive resulting in close to a million total deaths
-
Petain commanded brilliantly and became a French hero
The
-
Combined
-
No significant
movement
Warfare in
Balkans:
-
A.H. and the
Bulgarians defeated the Serbian (suffered tremendously)
-
Drew in
-
Threatened the
supply line to
-
Failed amphibious
warfare at Gallipoli
-
War expanded
Naval Warfare:
-
Battle of Jutland
only major engagement – indecisive results
o
Both sides afraid
to risk their fleets
-
Submarine warfare
was used to counter British blockade
-
Sinking of the
Arabic,
1917 “Blackest year of the
war”
-
- Russians dropped out due to revolution
- Germans could focus all efforts on the
Western Front
- Resumed
Submarine warfare
- Germans attempted to achieve offensive
victory before the
- Ludendorff Offensive, failed – surrender was a matter of
time
War on the Home Front
-
Women filled the
void in every sector of the economy
o
Women finally
attained the right to vote at the end of the war
-
Government
repression: put down workers protests
and labor unrest
o
At times govt.
cooperated with protest groups
o
Balfour
Declaration:
"Total war": involved mass civilian populations in the
war effort
·
Massive conscription drafted most able-bodied
men in their youth
·
News
was censored; propaganda lionized the men at the front and dehumanized the
enemy
·
Economic
production was focused on the war effort
·
Women
replaced male factory workers who were now fighting the war.
·
43% of
the labor force in
·
Changing
attitudes about women resulted in increased rights after the war (
·
Rationing
of food and scarce commodities was instituted.
·
People financed the war by buying bonds.
·
Each
side aimed at “starving out” the enemy by cutting off vital supplies to the
civilian population.
·
In
·
·
British
economy was largely planned and regulated
·
Labor
unions: saw increased influence and prestige due to increased demand for labor
·
War
promoted greater social equality, thus blurring class distinctions and
lessening the gap between rich and poor
Diplomacy during the
war
·
Wilson’s 14 Points (Jan.
1918) -- plan to end the war along liberal, democratic lines
·
Provisions:
·
Abolish
secret treaties
·
Freedom
of the seas
·
Remove
economic barriers (e.g. tariffs)
·
Reduction
of armament burdens
·
Promise
of independence (“self-determination”)
to oppressed minority groups (e.g. Poles, Czechs), millions of which lived in
·
Adjustment
of colonial claims in interests of both native peoples and colonizers
·
German
evacuation of
·
Adjustment
of
·
Autonomy for non-Turkish parts of the
·
14th
point: International organization to
supply collective security
·
Foreshadowed
End of the War
·
·
Also
known as the Ludendorff Ofensive
·
·
Central
Powers sought peace based on 14 Points (believing they would get fair
treatment)
·
·
·
·
Big Four: Lloyd George (
·
Central powers excluded from negotiations;
·
·
·
mandates for former colonies and territories of the
Central Powers
·
Article 231: placed sole blame for war on
·
·
German army and navy severely reduced
·
·
·
Results of WWI
·
Massive
casualties: 10 million soldiers dead; 10 million civilians dead, many from
influenza epidemic; 15 million died in Russian Revolution
·
End to
political dynasties
·
Hapsburg
dynasty removed in
·
Romanov dynasty
removed in
·
Hohenzollern
dynasty removed in
·
·
Political
map of
·
·
Russian
Revolution resulted in world's first communist country
·
German
nationalist resentment of harsh Versailles Treaty doomed the
·
German
anger with treaty partially responsible for rise of Hitler in early 1930s
·
The
·
Unresolved
differences lead to WWII
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
·
Nicholas
II (1868-1918), last of the Romanov dynasty;
·
·
To the extent that industrialization did exist,
· Russo-Japanese war, Revolution of 1905, staggering economic problems
· Russians lose the war – transportation problems
· Caused massive social unrest among the urban working populations
· Govt. not in a position to suppress protest (army is in the east)
·
Birth of socialism in
·
1898--Social Democratic Worker's party founded
in
· Lenin became the heir to Marx in socialist thought
· 3 basic ideas central to Lenin’s philosophy.
· Capitalism could be destroyed only by violent revolution; he denounced revisionism
·
Socialist revolution possible under certain
conditions, even in relatively backward
· Peasants were poor and thus potential revolutionaries.
· Necessity of a highly disciplined workers’ party, strictly controlled by a dedicated elite of intellectuals and full-time revolutionaries (he differed from Marx in this regard).
·
Lenin saw
a revolution from above, where as Marx saw a revolution from below
· 1903, Social Democrats (Social Democratic Worker’s Party) split into two factions
· Mensheviks (the "minority"): Wanted to await the evolution of capitalism and the proletariat; sought a more democratic party with mass membership.
·
Bolsheviks
(the "majority"): Followed Lenin's ideas (minority of socialists by
numbers)
1905 Revolution (“Bloody Sunday”) resulted in loss of public confidence in the Czar
· Czar was advised by Count Witte, compromised at first
· Created the Duma (legislative body) weak and ineffective but increasingly critical of Czar's poor leadership
· Czar resorted to violence when the military returned and as worker demands continued to increase
· Impact: Spurred the increased development of trade unions, worker committees and soviets (worker councils) to represent the interests of the people outside of the elite
World War I became the
major cause of the Russian Revolution
● Why did Nicholas II join the war?
● Sense of duty as a “great power”
● Thought that quick success would increase his popularity and power
· Massive Russian casualties, food shortages
· Nicholas II was the ONLY European political leader who also directed his country’s military strategy (bad idea, all failures tied to Nicholas directly)
· Alexandra ran the govt. (heavily influenced by Rasputin)
· Both Alexandra and Rasputin were hated and suspected as traitors by the nobility
· Impact: Nobles, soldiers and workers had all lost faith in the govt.
· February Revolution overthrew the Czar and instituted the Provisional Government
·
Revolution started by women rioting for bread in
· Duma met in defiance of Nicholas, who ordered them to disband
· Nicholas sent the troops against the Duma, troops supported the Duma
·
Duma responded by
declaring and appointing a provisional gov’t on
Dual Power
· The Provisional Government and the Soviets (soldier councils) gained power
· Provisional gov't wanted to continue the war; but the Soviets controlled the army
· Duma selected Prince Georgi Lvov as Prime Minister
·
● Provisional Gov't
had to share power with Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ & Soldiers’ Deputies
· Army Order #1: stripped officers of their authority and placed power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers (soldiers afraid in the future they might be liable for treason against the czar)
· Led to collapse of army discipline
·
Anarchy in
·
· Had no more success than Nicholas, popular opinion turned against him
· “July Days”: Revolts that broke out over land reform and the war
·
Provisional govt. used force to repress them
· Alexander Kerensky (Menshivik) became the leader of the Provisional Gov’t
· Implemented liberal program: equality before the law; freedom of religion, speech, and assembly; right of unions to organize & strike; election of local officials; 8-hr work day
· Rejected social revolution: doesn't confiscate large landholdings and give them to peasants
·
Armed the Red Guard of the
· Kerensky's refusal to end the war and prevent anarchy led to the fall of Provisional Gov't
Rise of Vladimir I.
Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov)
• Bolsheviks in exile planned a revolution: Lenin and Trotsky formed workers' Soviets (councils of workers, soldiers and intellectuals)
· Influence of Socialists, soldiers Soviets, & other parties and soldiers’ increased before WWI
· Plan: gain a majority control of the major soviets and use them to take over from above (vanguard of the proletariat)
·
· "April Theses": Lenin rejected all cooperation with the “bourgeois” provisional gov’t (Land Peace and Bread)
· Called for a "Socialist revolution" and establishment of a Soviet republic
· Nationalization of banks and landed estates
·
“All
Power to the Soviets”; “
· Kornilov Affair: military coup by General Kornulov failed, Kerensky lost all credit with army.
October Revolution (actually in November) results in a communist dictatorship
● Leon Trotsky, leader of the Petrograd Soviet (the Red Army), led Soviet overthrow and arrest of the provisional gov’t
● Nearly a bloodless coup: took over
government buildings (
● Implemented Marshall Law
·
Politburo
formed to organize revolution: includes Lenin, Trotsky, Stalin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin
· New elections: Bolshevik's lost (only 25% of vote) but overthrew new gov't with Red Army
· Lenin: "Peace, Land, Bread"
· Lenin gave land to peasants (although peasants already took it, like French Revolution)
· Lenin gave direct control of individual factories by local workers’ committees.
·
Signed Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 to take
· Gave up massive tracks of land, Lenin argued that they would retake it in the world wide revolution
· Bolsheviks renamed "communists"
· These actions lead to opposition to Bolsheviks and the Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War
· Reds (Bolsheviks) vs “Whites”
· Reds: led by Leon Trotsky and supported by Bolsheviks
·
Whites: Supported by traditional nobles and
Mensheviks (included officers of old army, and 18 groups proclaiming themselves
the real gov't of
·
Allies sent troops to help "Whites"
(Archangel Expedition;
·
By 1921,
the communists had defeated their opponents
· Communists were single minded in their goal
· War communism: Bolsheviks mobilized the home front for the civil war
· Confiscated whatever they needed for the war effort (regardless of results)
· Cheka: Secret police formed to hunt down and execute thousands of real or supposed opponents, such as the tsar and his family and other “class enemies.”
·
Implemented the “Red Terror” to crush popular oposition
· Communists extremely well organized (Trotsky); Whites were poorly organized
Results of the
Russian Revolution:
· Costs: 15 million dead, economy ruined, international trade gone, millions of workers fled
· Creation of world's first communist society: one of the monumental events of 20th century
· Agriculture had regressed to subsistence farming
· 87% of the existing (which was not much) industry was destroyed
· Most to all infrastructure was destroyed
·
Between the Wars Notes
Geographical tour:
Fall of the Eastern
European Empires:
-
In reconstructing
- Rumanian boards increased
-
Factors presenting problems to
Three points of
friction in
1. New states experienced internal instability due to the inclusion of rival ethnic minority groups
2. Decline of local economies as the protected markets of the Pre-WWI empires disappeared and local merchants were isolated from trade in the west
3. Boarder disputes dominated foreign policy
a. Important disputes were German and Russian claims on lost territory
Recovery:
1.
- End of the
war: a sense of shock prevailed, govt.
accounts had been favorable until the collapse and surrender, no actual fighting took place in
-
The civilian population, domestic
infrastructure and German industrial might remained largely intact
-
- Increased the sense that the Treaty of Versailles was unjust
-
- Newly created Eastern European states became ready made allies against the specter of Soviet expansion
- In the west: Lost Alsace and Lorraine, forced to keep the Rhineland demilitarized, the Saar region was put under the control of the League of Nations and all coal production was given to France until 1935
- Impact: Humiliation of the German people, who had no idea they were ever losing the war
- Foreign Policy: reverse the conditions of the Treaty of
- 1922 Treaty of Rapallo,
attempted to create economic cooperation between
-
- 1923: Gustav
Stresemann advanced a reconciliatory policy with
-
Locorno Treaties:
- Idealistic precursor to Kellogg-Braind Pact (1928)
-
In secret
2.
- Opposite of
- Saw the threat of
- Foreign Policy centered on the maintenance
of the
-
Formed the “little entente” in 1923 with
-
-
Fr. Lost international support, force would never be used again to
enforce the
-
Built the Maginot Line
- Formed the Kellogg-Braind
Pact with the
Collapse of the World Economy
War Debt: Bonds, inter-government loans, and increased printing of currency
- Impact: As bonds paid off – inflation occurred – led to a loss of wealth and destruction of savings
o Slowed demand for goods
-
Victorious nations became dependent on reparations to
pay back the
o Germans resented reparations, chose to print marks to pay back debt
§ Risked hyperinflation and the destabilization of the world economy
-
Dawes Plan:
- Trade was seen as the essential element to all nations economic recovery
o Problem:
o Impact was to increase European inflation and a skyrocketing value of the U.S. dollar
§
Eventually led to the decline of
§
As trade
declined
§ Young Plan: revision of the Dawes Plan
-
-
1929 Stock
Market crash triggered the depression in
o Exasperated by the Smoot-Hawley Act of 1930
- 1932 Lausanne Conference: ended reparations + gold standard
o Represented the death of Classical
Economics
§ State intervention seen as critical
Lenin to Stalin:
End of the Civil War
-
War communism
led to resistance of the peasantry
- Industry and agriculture production were destroyed
o In response to War Communism peasants held back their food production
o As agricultural production fell, so to did
the industrial growth
Assessment of
- Must find a way to catch up with the west and increase industrial production
Response: implement centralized planning
- “Politburo” assumed responsibility for central planning
- Implementation of totalitarianism
- Three leading figures: Lenin, Trotsky and Burkharin
o Lenin: wanted central planning of the entire economy
o Burkharin wanted to develop capital for industrial development through freeing agricultural markets with in kind taxes on peasantry
- Tenth Party Congress 1921: Lenin compromised, steered a course b/w trade union autonomy and central planning
o Precursor to the NEP
1921: New Economic Policy (NEP) replaced War
Communism
- Modified capitalism in which peasants could sell some of their crops
o “take one step back, before moving forward”
o Heavy industry would remain under government control
o Saved the Russian economy
1924: Death of Lenin and the rise of Stalin
- Stalin won struggle for power
o Secretary of the Party, he outmaneuvered Trotsky and Burkharin
o Used his position to develop extensive
patronage within
o Establishes
himself as dictator of
Joseph Stalin:
-
Born in
- Seminary dropout: Marxism
- Selected to Politburo to represent ethnic diversity
- Made secretary general of the party
o Used patronage of the position to increase
his power base
o Identified himself with Lenin (Lenin did
not think highly of him)
1927: Peasants began to withhold crops in response to govt. taxes, hording threatened to destroy the soviet economy
-
Stalin used the
crisis to seize power, eliminate opponents and
abandoned the NEP
-
Trotsky driven out of
- Burkharin forced out of the Politburo in 1929 and executed in 1937]
1928: Five Year Plans
-
Stalin
implements Five Year plans as an attempt to increase Soviet economic
productivity (attempt to catch up with western industrialization)
- Initially grew out of a response to the peasants unwillingness to pay taxes
o Centralized
the economic development of
§ Every industrial output was predetermined to achieve optimum growth
o At first massively successful
§ Rate of industrialization so rapid that Soviet cities struggled to meet the new demands of large scale urbanization
§
300-600%
growth, massive success
o Tremendous
social costs
§
Agriculture
was COLLECTIZED into communes
§ Peasants hoard food in response
§ Resulted in widespread famine and the death of roughly 5 million peasants
§ Stalin uses force to maintain control and establish totalitarianism
§
Great
Purge: 1934-38
· Stalin attacked anyone not loyal to him
·
300,000
executed
·
7 million
put into gulags
Fascism:
- Militaristic / nationalistic movement, which presented a “third way” between communism and democracy. Often described as an anti-movement (rationalism, progressivism, modernization) or as reactionary revivalist.
- An insulting term provoked by any display of authoritarian behavior.
Characteristics Fascism Nazism
|
Anti-communism |
X |
X |
|
Extreme Nationalism |
X |
X |
|
Racial Superiority Concept |
|
X |
|
Anti-Semitism |
|
X |
|
Aggressive Foreign Policy |
X |
X |
1920’s: Rise of Communism and the emergence of the Great Depression
Communism in
- View the Five Year Plans as military build up to take over the west
Impact: The western European nations will refuse to work with or trust the Soviets
Fascism in
Fascism: extreme nationalistic, anti-liberal,
authoritarian regime which bases its ideology in irrational rhetoric
- Rationality of the message was less important
than the passion with which it is delivered
- Movement based in a rejection of
enlightenment rationalism, modernism, liberalism, disappointed aspirations and
the embracing of extreme nationalism as the solution
- Popularity grew as fascists promised to fix
people’s problems while using scapegoats to shoulder blame, protect them from
the communist threat and alleviate economic problems by steering a middle
course b/w socialism and capitalism
- Movement was experienced in across
- Named after the Fasces: the rods carried by Imperial Roman officers as symbols of
power
- Usually incorporate some form of goon squad
- Poor country, felt betrayed by the Treaty of
Versailles – they did not gain enough territory or war reparations
- Universal male suffrage produced
parliamentary chaos and corruption
- Economic pressure created additional stress
on the government
Benito Mussolini- Il Duce
- Began as a socialist, abandoned
in favor of extreme nationalism as the best solution to
- Fascists were mostly
disillusioned war veterans and socialists
- Attacked all elements of Italian
leadership: Socialists, Catholic
Parties, Communists and big business
- Popularity grew as he blamed
others for people’s problems
March on
- 1922, Mussolini rejected a
minority leadership role in the govt.
- Demanded that the Fascists must be in charge
- 10/28/22 March on
- Mussolini demanded resignation
of govt. and appointment by the king
- Govt. collapsed under the
pressure
- Mussolini received the right to
organized a new cabinet
- Victor Emmanuel III gave
Mussolini dictatorial powers for one year to end social unrest
-
o
Authority
with management instead of workers, no right to collective bargaining allowed
-
Gained
control of schools and created fascist youth groups
o
Balilla
-
1924 Fascists achieved a majority through
violence and intimidation
o
murdered
Matteotti (socialist critic) – opposition resigned in
protest, Mussolini used his newly found majority to control govt. and crack
down on opposition
-
Lateran Treaty: Mussolini negotiated independence
of the
Empire:
- as
domestic problems continued, Mussolini looked to create an “
-
-
-
- Served to drive a political wedge b/w
- Mussolini looked to
- 1936
- 1939 Pact of Steel, bound the
Italian military to the Germans
Impact:
-
Mussolini in control of government machinery,
but he failed to destroy opposition and establish a police state
-
Democracy ended
Rise of Hitler / Phony War
End of WWI the Treaty of
1. German army
never defeated and never surrendered
Impact: Soldiers willing to fight again
2. Implement
democratic government into
Impact: No tradition, no support from military / civilian bureaucracy
3. Imposed massive
war reprobation’s on
Impact: Hyperinflation (bread cost upwards of 1,000,000 marks)
4. Limitation of
German sovereignty
Impact: Desire to resist and overthrow Treaty of Versailles
Economic Peril spreads through Germany
Inflation: Hyperinflation makes the German Mark worthless
Impact: War reprobation become meaningless, leads to high unemployment
Unemployment in Germany
Hitler
Leader of the National Socialist Party (Nazis)
1923- Hitler attempted to lead a revolt, fails (Beer Hall Putsch)
- Jailed and decided that he must come to power through legal means
- Wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle)
Late 20’s / early 30’s
Hitler promises to achieve “full employment” if elected
- Popularity grew as unemployment grew
- Nazis win the most votes in the 1933 elections
- President Hindenberg appoints Hitler to Chancellor
- 1934 Hindenberg dies, Hitler declares himself Fuhrer
Hitler delivers full employment through rearming the German state
- Men join army and war goods producing industries
- Nationalization of major industries (Volkswagen)
- Expelled Jews and “non-Germans” from economy
Anti-Semitism
- No single cause
- Part of Hitler’s ideological view of German Nationalism
-
Why? The result of upbringing,
general culture (Wagner), need to scapegoat (blame) someone for
- Not rational
Political Technique of Adolph Hitler:
Plans and techniques were clearly explained in his book Mein Kampf:
“The driving force of the most important changes in this world has been found less in scientific knowledge animating the masses but rather in a fanaticism dominating them and in a hysteria which drives them forward” Adolph Hiter, Mein Kampf
Hitler did not believe in the use of rational thought to motivate people. Instead, Hitler believed that government should motivate people through the use of propaganda.
“All effective propaganda has to limit itself to a very few points and to use them like slogans…It has to confine itself to little and repeat this eternally.” Adolph Hitler, Mein Kampf
Hitler believed that it was fine for a political leader to lie to the people, so long as they do not get caught. Thus, to avoid detection, political leaders must not tell lies that the people would recognize. Hitler believed that since the people commonly tell “small lies”, the people would readily recognize any small lies told by their political leaders.
therefore political leaders should “fabricate colossal untruths and they (the people) would not believe that others could have the imprudence to distort the truth so infamously.” Adolph Hitler, Mein Kampf
Result: The effectiveness of any message depended not on its truth, but only in the fanaticism and passion with which it is conveyed; any properly presented message will be accepted by the masses.
- Hitler used these ideas to develop highly effective speeches.
- Hitler then worked to develop the image of himself as the embodiment of the German Nation.
- Hitler developed a political ideology based social Darwinism, a romanticized view of German history and philosophy.
- Built the myth of the Aryan race as superior to all others, definin